REINFORCED CAVITY WALL

INTRODUCTION :



A WALL CONSTRUCTED IN TWO LEAVES OR SKINS WITH A SPACE OR CAVITY BETWEEN THEM IS CALLED A CAVITY WALL.
USED AS AN EXTERNAL WALL.
THE MAIN PURPOSE OF CONSTRUCTING A CAVITY WALL IS TO PREVENT THE PENETRATION OF RAIN TO THE INTERNAL SURFACE OF THE WALL.
IT MAY OR MAY NOT BE REINFORCED.

ACCORDING TO BUILDING REGULATION RULES :

THE CAVITY SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 50 MM NOR MORE THAN 75 MM IN WIDTH AT ANY LEVEL.

EACH LEAF SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 100 MM IN THICKNESS AT ANY LEVEL.

FOR A NOMINAL 255 MM WIDE CAVITY WALL OF ANY LENGTH THE MAX. HT. IS 3.6 M & FOR LENGTH NOT EXCEEDING 9 M , THE MAX. HT. IS 9 M.

INNER LEAF CAN NOT BE LESS THAN 75 MM THK. IF THE WALL FORMS PART OF APRIVATE DWELLING HOUSE OF ONE STOREY OR IS THE UPPER STOREY OF SUCH A DWELLING HAVING ONLY TWO STOREYS.

A GAUGE MORTER NOT WEAKER THAN 1:2:9 SHOULD BE USED.

ADVANTAGES :

IT IS ABLE TO WITHSTAND A DRIVING RAIN IN ALL SITUATIONS FROM PENETRATING TO THE INNER WALL SURFACE.

NO NEED FOR EXTERNAL RENDERING

GIVES GOOD THERMAL INSULATION,KEEPING THE BUILDING WARM IN WINTER & COOL IN SUMMER.

ENABLES THE USE OF CHEAPER & ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS FOR THE INNER CONSTRUCTION.

POSSESSES HIGHER SOUND INSULATION VALUE THAN A STANDARD BRICK WALL.

DISADVANTAGES :

REQUIRES HIGH STANDARD OF DESIGN & WORKMANSHIP TO PRODUCE A SOUNDLY CONSTRUCTED WALL; THIS WILL REQUIRE GOOD SUPERVISION DURING CONSTRUCTION.

SLIGHTLY COSTLIER THAN A STANDARD 1 BRICK THK. WALL.

IT IS NEEDED TO INCLUDE A VERTICAL D.P.C. TO ALL OPENINGS.

CAVITY BLOCK CONSTRUCTION
HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS ARE USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION.
DIFFERENT SIZES & TYPES OF BLOCKS ARE AVAILABLE.
THE TYPE OF BLOCK DEPENDS UPON WHERE IT IS TO BE USED.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAVITY BLOCKS

SAND-FACED PLASTER

PLASTERING
Plastering provides a finished surface that is firm and smooth.
The plaster acts as a sound and thermal insulation layer to some extent.
Plaster is a layer of cement-sand mortar applied over a masonry work which also acts as a damp-proof coat over the masonry.
Plastering enhances the appearing of the building.
Helps to provide a suitable base for colour wash.

SAND-FACED PLASTER
The first coat of cement plaster is carried out in cement mortar of proportion 1:4,I.e. one part of cement to four parts of clean,coarse and angular river sand by volume.
The thickness of first coat is 12mm.
The first coat is to be well watered for atleast 7 days.
The first coat is provided with zigzag lines so that the first coat adheres well with the second coat.
The second coat of sand-faced cement plaster is carried out in proportion 1:3 and the thickness of second coat is 8mm.
The second coat should be applied on the first coat before 7 days of completion of first coat.
Sand to be used in the mortar for the second coat is to be perfectly screened so that sand of uniform size appears on the surface.
Sponge is used on the second coat and it is applied when the second coat is wet and it is so worked that the density of sand grains appearing on the surface is equal and uniform.
After completion of the second coat, the surface is kept well-watered at least for 15 days.

DEFECTS IN PLASTERING
Blistering or plastered surface
Cracks
Flaking
Peeling
Popping rust-stains
Softness
Uneven surface


FOR MINIMISING DEFECTS IN PLASTERING WORK

The brick and plastering work should be carried out by skilled masons in the best workmanship manner.
Bond of brick should be properly maintained.
The surface to be plastered should be well-watered so that it may not absorb water from plaster.
Excessive trowelling should be avoided.
Fresh plaster surfaces should be protected from rain,dirt and excessive heat as sun.
Water free from salts should be used for brick work and plastering work.

SPECIALIZED RENDERING

Introduction:-
The words wall, walling, cladding, facings and wall facings are variously used relative to the usually vertical envelop of the buildings.
Cladding clothes the building in a protective clothing that is hung supported by or secured to the skeleton or structural frame as a jacket.
Cladding will be used to describe panels of concrete, GRC, GRP, glass & metal fixed to and generally hung from the frame, by supporting beams or inside light framing as a continuous outer skin to the frame.
More recently thin sheet metal panels, are used by themselves as a wall finish or with the frame and services exposed in what is referred as a hi-tech architecture.
In specialized external finishes the following techniques are generally used-
Aluminium cladding
Stone cladding
Heritage plaster

Aluminum cladding:-
In this aluminium metal panels are used in the form of separate flat or profiled panels supported by a metal carrier system which is fixed to the structure.
These panels are separated either by visible silicon joints or by visible members of their supporting frame.
The aluminium panel is a composite material composed to two strong sheets of .020" gauge aluminum and a polyethylene core. It is lightweight, rigid, and corrosion resistant. It is easily fabricated and can be used for a wide variety of applications.

Aluminum cladding:-
These panels are available in the following standard sizes-
SIZES 1220mmX2440mm, 1220mmX3050mm, 1220mmX3660mm.
THICKNESS
2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 6mm.
Special sizes are available as per order. In addition to this, larger widths of 1550mm & 1600 mm are available.




Joining of panels:

Fastening: Riveting & Bolting:
Aluminium blind rivet & stainless steel bolt/nuts are recommended to fasten Al panels.

Welding:
Aluminium panels edges can be joined by welding the core with the help of hot jet gun.




INSTALLATION DETAILS:









Characteristics:

Excellent flatness.
Minimum dead weight.
Consistency of paint finish.
Resistant to blow & breakage.
Weather ability or vibration damping.
Sound & heat insulation.
Ease of formability.
Ease of installation & maintenance.

Stone cladding:-

Stone facings are provided for a decorative finish to stimulate the effect of solidity and permanence traditionally associated with the masonry.
The types of stones used are limestone, Clipsham, Sandstones, Marble etc.
Facing slabs are fixed so that there is a cavity between the back of the slabs and the back ground wall or frame to allow fixings and tolerances. The type of fixings used to support and secure facing slabs in position are:
Loadbearing fixings
Restraint fixings
Combined loadbearing and restraint fixings.
Face fixings
Soffit fixings

Joints between stone slabs:-
Joints between stone facing slabs should be sealed as a barrier from rain water running off the face of the slabs.
Whenever water enters the cavity it will be trapped and will not evaporate and may cause conditions of persistent dampness. Open or Butt joints must be avoided.
For joints between limestone & sandstone- mortar of cement, lime, sand mix 1:1:6.
For joints between granite- mortar mix of 1:2:8.
Sealants may be also used such as 1 part polysulphide, 1 part polyurethane.

Heritage plaster:-

Heritage plaster is the brand name given to a certain type of plaster.
It is a wall finish used to
give a textured finishes to
external and internal walls
Its available in the form of silica granules or flakes, to be mixed with a bonding agent.
It requires minimum 8 hours to dry, as 50% of the liquid is absorbed by the base, and 50% evaporates.
A silicon coat is applied as a top finish.
This plaster lasts for about 15-20 years ,as long as the smooth plaster base for it doesn’t crack.
It requires skilled labour, often provided by the manufacturers, to ensure product quality.

Advantages:-
This wall finish is durable, and lasts about 15-20 yrs, (given that the smooth plaster base behind it doesn't crack.) compared to cement paint, which needs to be reapplied externally every 3 yrs.
No further primer and paint is required over it
Various colors are available in heritage plaster.
Its weather resistant, easily washable and not prone to fungus, as cement paint is.

Disadvantages:-
Its quite expensive ( Rs.30-150 / kg of granules) compared to cement paint finish.
It requires skilled labour supplied by the manufacturer.
It has to be bought from authorized distributors.

Applications:-
Being weather resistant and durable, its preferred over cement paint for external walls.
It is often used to create interesting murals or designs with the large no. of colors and textures available.

CLIMATOLOGY

STUDY OF CLIMATOLOGY IS A STUDY OF ENERGY CONSERVATION AND DESIGN TO CREATE COMFORTABLE SHELTERS WITH RESPECT TO CLIMATE.

CLIMATE :
IT CAN BE DEFINED AS AN INTEGRATION IN TIME OF PHYSICAL STATES OF THE ATMOSPHERE,ENVIRONMENT, CHARACTERISTIC OF A CERTAIN GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION.

WEATHER:
WEATHER IS THE MOMENTARY STATE OF ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT A CERTAIN LOCATION.
CLIMATE COULD BE DEFINED AS THE INTEGRATION IN TIME OF WEATHER CONDITIONS.

ATMOSPHERE
THE MIXTURE OF GASES ENVELOPING THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH HELD BY GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND FRICTION IS THE ATMOSPHERE.
TOPOSPHERE 8-13 KM
STATOSPHERE 200 KM
INOSPHERE 300 KM
EXOSTSPHERE 1300 KM
OZONE LAYER

GLOBAL FACTORS


SOLAR RADIATION
EARTHS-SUN RELATIONSHIP
EARTHS THERMAL BALANCE
WINDS
OCEAN AND OCEAN CURRENTS
TOPOGRAPHY

SOLAR RADIATION

THE EARTH RECEIVES ALMOST ALL ITS ENERGY FROM THE SUN IN THE FORM OF RADIATION THUS,THE SUN IS THE DOMINATING INFLUENCE ON CLIMATES.
THE SPECTRUM OF THE SOLAR RADIATION EXTENDS FROM 290 TO 2300NM.

EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIP

SEASON:TILT OF AXIS OF EARTH IS CONSTANT THUS THE CYCLIC CHANGES IN ATMOSPHERE ARE CALLED AS SEASONS.

EARTHS THERMAL BALANCE


THE RADIATION RECEIVED BY THE EARTH OR ABSORBED BY THE EARTH EACH YEAR IS BALANCED BY CORRESPONDING HEAT LOSS.WITHOUT THIS COOLING THE THERMAL BALANCE WOULD NOT BE MAINTAINED.
THE EARTHS SURFACE LOOSES HEAT.
A)BY EVAPORATION.
B)BY LONG WAVE RADIATION TO THE OUTER SPACE.
C)RISING OF HOT AIR.

WINDS
THE AIR MOVEMENT ON THE SURFACE OF EARTH DUE TO DIFFERENCE IN PRESSURE WHICH IS CAUSED DUE TO CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE IS CALLED WINDS.
THE DIFFERENCE IN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO EACH OTHER.
THE ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENT IS FROM HIGHER PRESSURE BELT TO LOWER PRESSURE.
TYPES OF WIND FLOWING OVER SURFACE OF EARTH ARE,
1.PLANETARY WINDS
2.MONSOON WINDS
3.CYCLONIC/ANTICYCLONIC WINDS

OCEAN CURRENTS
DEVELOPED DUE TO THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
UNDULATING SEA CORE/SEA BED
DIFFERENCE IN SALINITY OF WATER
UNEQUAL HEATING OF BODIES
SURFACE WINDS

TOPOGRAPHY
ON A LARGER SCALE INTERACTION OF TEMPERATURE PATTERNS ARE CREATED BY DIFFERENTIAL HEATING ON LAND,FOREST AND OCEAN.
THIS CAUSES CHANGE IN WEATHER.

VENTILATION
VENTILATION MAY BE DEFINED AS THE SYSTEM OF SUPPLYING OR REMOVING AIR BY NATURAL OR MECHANICAL MEANS TO OR FROM ANY ENCLOSED SPACE.
IN ORDER TO PRODUCE AND TO MAINTAIN EITHER HEALTHFUL,COMFORTABLE,OR THE NECESSARY AIR CONDITIONS WITHIN A STRUCTURE IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO INTRODUCE INTO AND REMOVE FROM THE SPACES OF THE BUILDING A DEFINITE AMOUNT OF AIR IN DEFINITE TIME.

NEED FOR VENTILATION
TO REMOVE HEAT AND MOISTURE GIVEN OFF BY THE OCCUPANTS.
TO PREVENT UNDUE CONCENTRATION OF BODY ODOURS,FUMES,VAPOURS,DUST,ETC.
TO PREVENT AN UNDUE CONCENTRATION OF BACTERIA-CARRYING PARTICLES.
TO PREVENT OXYGEN DEPLETION AS THE RESULT OF THE COMBUSTION OF FUELS AND OTHER MATERIALS.
TO PREVENT FLAMMABLE CONCENTRATION OF GAS,VAPOURS OR DUST.
TO PREVENT SMOKE AND FOG PRODUCTION.
TO CREATE AIR MOVEMENT AND THUS PREVENT EXCESSIVE HEAT FROM ALL SOURCES.

NATURAL VENTILATION
NATURAL VENTILATION DEPENDS ON AIR MOVEMENT INDUCED BY WIND AND TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE.
SINCE THE RATE OF FLOW OF AIR THROUGH AN OPENING DEPENDS ON WIND VELOCITY,THE ADJUSTMENTS OF THE AREA OF THE OPENINGS TO MAINTAIN THE CONSTANCY OF AIR CHANGE BECOMES NECESSARY.
THE MAXIMUM AREA OF WINDOW OPENINGS SHOULD BE ONE-FIFTH OF THE FLOOR AREA.AS A MINIMUM IT SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN ONE-TENTH OF THE FLOOR AREA.

WINDS-NATURAL VENTILATION

USE THE WIND FOR COOLING.
PRESERVE EACH BUILDINGS ACCESS TO COOLING BREEZES DURING OVERHEATED PERIOD.
ORIENT BUILDINGS TOWARDS COOLING BREEZES.
PROVIDE OPENINGS FOR VENTILATION THAT CAN BE SEPARATE THE HOUSE USED FOR VIEWS,SUNLIGHT,DAYLIGHT.
ADDITIONALLY,DURING PERIODS OF CALM,MICROCLIMATIC THERMAL WINDS CAUSED BY VALLEY EFFECTS,CITY EFFECTS OR WATER BODIES MAY OCCUR.

TYPES OF VENTILATION
OPEN OR MIXED VENTILATION SCHEME FOR YOUR BUILDING.
CLOSED SCHEME FOR THE OVERHEATED MONTHS,A MIXED SCHEME IS OFTEN APPROPRIATE FOR COOLER MONTHS.
MIXED SCHEME IS FOR AN INTERNALLY DOMINATED LOAD BUILDING.

OPEN BUILDINGS
NATURAL VENTILATION AND DEPEND ON THERMALLY OR WIND INDUCED INTERNAL AIR FLOW FOR COOLING.THIS COOLING STRATEGY WORKS ONLY IF THE INSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE IS HIGHER THAN THE OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE.
NATURAL VENTILATION CAN BE USED EVEN IN THE HOTTEST MONTH.
IN DRIER CLIMATES,COOLING CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED NEAR THE UPPER LIMIT OF THE COMFORT ZONE BY MOVING AIR AS WARM AS 87 DEGREE F.
THIS TEMPERATURE HAS TO BE SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER IN MORE HUMID CLIMATE.

CLOSED BUILDINGS

CLOSED BUILDINGS USE HIGH MASS WITHOUT SIMULTANEOUS VENTILATION.
THESE BUILDINGS MAY ALSO USE EVAPORATIVE COOLING ,DESICCANT COOLING,EARTHTUBE COOLING,ROOF PONDS,AND MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.

MIXED BUILDINGS

MIXED BUILDINGS CAN BE CLOSED DURING VERY HOT HOURS,THEN OPENED FOR NIGHT VENTILATION TO REMOVE STORED HEAT.
THE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN AND MIXED STRATEGIES IS THAT OPEN VENTILATION REMOVES HEAT AS IT IS GENERATED WHILE THE MIXED STRATEGIES REMOVES THE ENTIRE DAYS HEAT DURING A SHORT VENTILATION PERIOD.

PASSIVE VENTILATION
TWO BASIC WAYS----
CROSS VENTILATION-
DEPENDS ON THE FORCE OF THE WIND TO EXPEL HOT AIR FROM THE LEEWARD SIDE OF THE BUILDING TO BE REPLACED BY COOLER AIR FORCED IN THE WINDWARD SIDE.
STACK VENTILATION-
DEPENDS ON HOT AIR RISING TO EXPEL HOT AIR FROM OPENINGS HIGH IN A BUILDING.THIS HOT AIR IS THEN REPLACED BY COOLER AIR DRAWN IN THROUGH MUCH LOWER OPENINGS IN THE BUILDING ENVELOPE.THIS IS PARTICULARLY USEFUL IF YOU HAVE CALM WIND CONDITIONS DURING OVERHEATED MONTHS.IT CAN ALSO BE EFFECTIVE WITH EARTHTUBE COOLING.

VENTILATION AIR FLOW
1.FOR OPEN AND MIXED BUILDINGS-
SHOW THE AIR FLOW VENTILATION PATH.
ON SITE PLAN,FLOOR PLANS AND SECTIONS DRAW FLOW OF VENTILATION AIR AROUND AND THROUGH THE BUILDING FOR MONTHS IT NEEDS TO BE COOL.
WIND FLOWS FROM +VE PRESSURE TO –VE PRESSURE AREAS
HOT AIR RISES ,COOL AIR FALLS.

2.FOR CLOSED AND MIXED BUILDINGS-
SHOW THE RADIATION/AIRFLOW PATHS-
ON FLOOR PLANS AND SECTIONS INDICATE THE LOCATIONS OF THERMAL MASS.IN ORDER TO MASS COOLING STRATEGIES THE MASS MUST HAVE A LARGE AMOUNT OF SURFACE AREA AS COMPARED TO ITS VOLUME.
IF THE MASS WILL BE COOLED PRIMARILY BY RADIATION,DRAW THE PATH OF RADIANT TRANSFER FROM THERMAL MASS TO HEAT SINK AND SPECIFY THE TYPE OF HEAT SINK (NIGHT SKY,WATER BODY)
IF BUILDING RELIES ON NIGHT VENTILATION,WHERE THE MASS IS COOLED BY CONDUCTION/CONVECTION,DRAW THE PATH OF AIR CURRENTS OVER THE SURFACE OF MASS.

WINDCATCHERS AND TURBOVENTILATORS

WINDCATCHERS/WIND SCOOPS ARE USED TO TAKE COOL AIR INSIDE THE STRUCTURE.THESE ARE TALL STRUCTURE LIKE CHIMNEY FROM WHICH THE HOT AIR IS REMOVED.
TURBOVENTILATORS ARE ALSO USED WHICH ARE FIXED IN ROOF BECAUSE OF THE HOT AIR THESE TURBO-VENTILATORS ROTATES AND COOL AIR FIND ITS PATH THROUGH.
MANYTIMES CAVITY IS CREATED IN THE WALL WHERE COOL AIR IS ABSORBED AND WHILE PASSING ONTO THE HOT WALL IT ABSORBS THE HEAT AND ESCAPES AT THE ROOF LEVEL.
VENTILATORS PROVIDED AT ROOF LEVEL ALSO HELPS FOR NATURAL VENTILATION.

AR. LAURIE BAKER

BIOGRAPHY


Studied Architecture at The Birmingham School of Architecture.
In 1938, Associate of Royal Institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.)
In 1945, he came to India. In 1983, M.B.E. In 1987, received the first Indian National Habitat Award.
In 1989, Indian Institute of Architects Medal for Outstanding Architect of the year. In 1989, given Indian Citizenship.
In 1990, Grand Masters Award - Architect of the year. In 1991, Indian Institute of Architects Medal - Outstanding Architect. In 1992, UNO Habitat Award and Roll of Honour. In 1993, International Union of Architects - World Habitat Award. In 1995, University of Central England. Doctor of the University.

PROJECTS

Projects ranging from fishermen's villages to institutional complexes, low cost mud housing schemes to low cost cathedrals.
Centre for Development Studies, Ulloor, Trivandrum, 1971.
Houses at Archbishop Compound, Pattom, Trivandrum, 1970.
K.N.Raj's residence, Kumarapuram, Trivandrum, 1970.
House for R. Narayanan, Golf Links, Trivandrum, 1972-73.
Mitraniketan, Vellanad, Trivandrum - 1970
House for Dr A.Vaidyanathan, Kumarapuram, Trivandrum, 1972.
House for Leela Menon, Golf Links, Trivandrum, 1973-74.
House for Beena Sarasan (an Income Tax officer), Kowdiar, Trivandrum, 1989.

PHILOSOPHY

‘Mahatma Gandhi’ Laurie Baker’s inspiration.

One of his influences has been Mahatma Gandhi, for him proper development can be done if raw material is brought from a place in a range of 5-10 kms.
Laurie Baker’s architecture was a contemporary version of the vernacular.
He draws a creative sustenance from the environment in which he works, absorbing vernacular patterns of construction and individual styles of living to such a degree that he is able to give his clients.

The Loyola Chapel, reflecting Baker's mastery over light.

The forgotten vernacular techniques were used in his design.
He criticized the works of Le Corbusier, his structures were characterless.
Another inspiration for him has been ordinary men.

Laurie’s philosophy of contemporary version of the vernacular.





CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Baker creates a variety of textures and patterns by simple manipulation of the way in which bricks are placed in the wall.

The upturned, horned roofs of buildings as found in Kerala are the direct result of the people of those places, they knew that hot air rises & allowed it to travel upwards from the low eaves to the openings at the ends of the high ridge. They understood and applied principles of insulation; then roofing materials formed hollow cellular protective layers.
Concrete is used sparingly often in a folded slab design with waste & discarded tiles used as fillers thereby making the roof light.
He used jalis which had many advantages, such as ventilation, enough light, less material required.

‘THE HAMLET’

‘The Hamlet’ built on a steeply contoured site

An architects personality is reflected in the way he designs his own house.
1st built a single room hut of timber. It housed the library of medical books & also as B.R, L.R, D.R & study.
The site was highly contoured and rocky, but baker did not disturb even a single rock or a tree, so it is popularly named as “right in the rocks”.
A house was built on the lower contour for the 4 nieces who moved to Trivandrum. One more house was built for his son Tilak which faced the trees.

The living room of ‘The Hamlet'

Bakers innovative use of discarded bottles

The incursion of structures on the site is not felt.
Baker has managed to confine this building to an area that is easily accessible& yet secluded by the heavy foliage.
Laurie Baker used material from other demolished structures. Wood planks from an old boat jetty. He even used old bottles in another structure, which gives a different effect.
The journey to Bakers home is like from a concrete jungle of Trivandrum to the freshness & shade of the suburbs.


‘Nicery’ for his 4 nieces.

CENTER FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

The Computer center at the ‘Center for Development studies’

Established in 1965 for promoting economic development, so Laurie Baker was the obvious choice.
All the concerns of his architectural practice the sensitivity to the natural contours & elements of a site, the honest & optimum utilization of the materials find an expression in the plan & structures of the center.
It has all the Baker characteristics- the jalis, the traditional roofs, the stepped arches, the overhanging eaves and the skylights.
Baker is able to transform vernacular architecture to suit the requirements of a modern academic institution.




COST SAVING TECHNIQUES






Using corbelling instead of a lintel above the frame, this reduces the cost of the R.C.C lintel.
Using less number of bricks to make a wall of same thickness and providing cavities in between for insulation.
Reducing the unnecessary cost of a window with a shutter.
Using ‘jali’ in his walls for proper cross ventilation, enough sun light etc.

Architectural Presentation - POLYSTYRENE USED FOR HEAT INSULATION.

WHAT IS HEAT INSULATION?

Heat insulation is the method of preventing heat from escaping a container or from entering the container.

In other words, thermal insulation can keep an enclosed area such as a building warm, or it can keep the inside of a container cold.

Heat is transferred from one material to another by conduction, convection and/or radiation.

Insulators are used to minimize transfer of heat energy.

Molded Expanded Polystyrene (MEPS) Foam Board

MEPS is a closed-cell material that can be molded into many items, such as coffee cups and shipping materials, or into large sheets as construction insulation.

This material is commonly
known as "bead board," and
it has R-value of about
4 per inch of thickness [2.54 cm].

R-value

The R-value of a material is its resistance to heat flow and is an indication of its ability to insulate. It is used as a standard way of telling how good a material will insulate.The higher the R-value, the better the insulation.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

The physical properties of MEPS vary with the type of bead used, but the density of the board is usually one pound per cubic foot (16.3 kilograms per cubic meter.)


MAKING OF POLYSTYRENE

To make bead board, loose, unexpanded polystyrene
beads containing liquid pentane are mixed with a blowing agent and poured into an enclosed container.
The mixture is then heated
to expand the beads many
times their original size.
The beads are then injected
into a mold and under more
heat and pressure expand to become foam blocks that
are then shaped as required.

Bead board is manufactured at various densities, depending on the application.

Bead board for roofing materials has to be dense enough to walk on without damage.
Wall insulation boards are several times less dense than roof boards.
R-values range from 3.8 to 4.4 per inch (2.54 cm) of thickness.
Since spaces between the foam beads can absorb water, a vapor diffusion retarded is necessary if water transmission through the insulation might cause a problem for the user.

Used where:

Roofs, walls, foundations, entry and overhead garage doors, pipes and tanks, under basement slabs, or over a slab-on-grade floor.

Architectural presentation-METALS

IRON
ORES:
HAEMATITE (Fe2O3)----65%-70%
LIMONITE (2Fe2O3, 3H2O)----60%
MAGNETITE (Fe3O4)----70%-73%
PYRITE (FeS2)----45%-47%
SIDERITE (FeCO3)----40%
 
PIG IRON
MANUFACTURE:
DRESSING
·        CALCINATION AND ROASTING IN BLAST FURNACE
·        SMELTING

·         (PIG IRON OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 93 TO 95% OF IRON, @ 4 TO5 %
OF CARBON AND REMAINING BEING SULPHUR, SILICON, MANGANESE,
PHOSPHORUS, ETC. THE SLAG OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 45% OF LIME,
@35% OF SILICA, @ 12% OF ALUMINA AND THE REMAINING BEING
OTHER IMPURITIES SUCH AS MAGNESIA, CALCIUM SULPHATE,
MANGANEESE OXIDE, ETC. SLAG MAY BE USED AS

·         IN CEMENT CONCRETE AS COARSE AGGREGATE,
·         IN MAKING ROADS AS ROAD METAL,
·         IN RAILWAYS AS BALLAST,
·         IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BLAST FURNACE CEMENT, ETC.)
 
·         ELECTRIC REDUCTION FURNACE
·         LOW SHAFT BLAST FURNACE
·         SPONGE IRON PROCESS
 
TYPES:
·        BESSEMER PIG
·        GREY PIG
·        WHITE IRON
·        MOTTLED IRON

PROPERTIES:
CAN BE HARDENED BUT NOT TEMPRED.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED.
CANNOT BE WELDED OR RIVETED.
DOES NOT RUST.
DIFFICULT TO BEND.
HARD AND BRITTLE.
NEITHER DUCTILE NOR MALLEABLE.
MELTS EASILY & ITS FUSION TEMP. IS 1200OC.
HIGH COMPRESSION STRENGTH. BUT IT IS WEAK IN TENSION & SHEAR.
 
USES:
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL BY BESSEMER OR ACID OPEN HEARTH PROCESS.
·                    CAST IRON CASTING.
·                    MANUFACTURE OF WROUGHT IRON.
·                    ORNAMENTAL CASTINGS &HEAVY FOUNDRY CASTINGS.

CAST IRON
COMPOSITION:
2% TO 4% CARBON + IMPURITIES (MANGANESE, PHOSPHORUS, SILICON AND SULPHUR)
MANUFACTURE:
·         REMELTING PIG IRON WITH COKE & LIMESTONE INCUPOLA FURNACE
 
TYPES:
·  GREY CAST IRON.
·  WHITE CAST IRON.
·  MOTTLED CAST IRON.
·  CHILLED CAST IRON.
·  MALLEABLE CAST IRON.
·  TOUHENED CAST IRON.
·                     
PROPERTIES:
GRANULAR STRUCTURE & CRYSTALLINE WITH WHITISH OR GREYISH TINGE.
CAN BE HARDENED BY HEATING AND SUDDEN COOLING, BUT IT CANNOT BE TEMPERED.
SHRINKS ON COOLING, USED FOR MAKING PATTERNS OR MOULDS FOR FOUNDRY WORK.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED, DOES NOT RUST EASILY, FUSIBLE, HARD BUT BRITTLE.
NOT DUCTILE, CANNOT ABSORB SHOCKS & IMPACT.
BECOMES SOFT, WHEN PLACED IN SALT WATER.
MELT AT @ 1250OC.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.5.
HIGH COMPRESSION STRENGTH. BUT IT IS WEAK IN TENSION.
POSSESSES TENSILE STRENGTH @ 150 N PER mm2 & COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 600 N PER mm2.
LACKS PLASTICITY, HENCE UNSUITABLE FOR FORGING WORK.
CANNOT BE WELDED OR RIVRTED, HENCE BOLTED.

USES:
MAKING CISTERNS, WATER PIPES, GAS PIPES AND SEWERS, MANHOLE COVERS AND SANITARY FITTINGS.
ORNAMENTAL CASTINGS SUCH AS BRACKETS, GATE, LAMPS, POSTS, SPIRAL STAIRCASES, ETC
MANUFACTURING COMPRESSION MEMBERS LIKE COLUMNS & BASES.

WROUGHT IRON
COMPOSITION:
0.15% CARBON
 
MANUFACTURE:
·         REFINING
·         PUDDLING
·         SHINGLING
·         ROLLING
·         ASTON’S PROCESS
 
PROPERTIES:
EASILY FORGED AND WELDED AS IT SOFTENS ON HEATING.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
FUSES WITH DIFFICULTY THEREFORE CANNOT ADOPTED FOR MAKING CASTINGS.
FRESH FRACTURES SHOWS CLEAR BLUISH COLOUR WITH A HIGH SILKY LUSTER AND FIBROUS APPEARANCE.
MODERATELY ELASTIC.
UNAFFECTED BY SALINE WATER.
BETTER CORROSION RESISTANCE.
TOUGH, MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1500OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 400 N PER mm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 200 N PER mm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH @ 110 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.8.
 
 
USES:
REPLACED AT PRESENT BY EXTENT BY MILD STEEL.
MANUFACTURING BOLTS AND NUTS, HORSE SHOE BARS, HANDRAILS, STRAPS FOR
TIMBER ROOF TRUSSES, BOLIER TUBES, ROOFING SHEETS ETC.

STEEL
MANUFACTURE:
1 BESSEMER PROCESS
2 CEMENTATION PROCESS
3 CRUCIBLE STEEL PROCESS
4 DUPLEX PROCESS
5 ELECTRIC PROCESS
6 L.D. PROCESS
7 OPEN HEARTH PROCESS.

PROPERTIES:
MILD STEEL:
CAN BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
CAN BE READILY FORGED AND WELDED.
CANNOT BE EASILY ATTACKED BY SALT WATER.
TOUGHER & MORE ELASTIC THAN WROUGHT IRON.
USED FOR ALL TYPES OF STRUCTURAL WORKS.
MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1400OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 60 TO 80 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 80 TO 120 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.80

HARD STEEL:
EASILY HARDENED & TEMPERED.
GRANULAR STRUCTURE.
CAN BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
CAN BE READILY FORGED AND WELDED.
CANNOT BE EASILY ATTACKED BY SALT WATER.
TOUGHER & MORE ELASTIC THAN WROUGHT IRON.
USED FOR ALL TYPES OF STRUCTURAL WORKS.
MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1300OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 80 TO 110 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 140 TO 200 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH @ 110 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.90

MARKET FORMS OF STEEL & USES:
 
1 ANGLE SECTIONS
2 CHANNEL SECTIONS
3 CORRUGATED SHEETS
4 EXPANDED METAl
5 FLAT BARS
6 I-SECTIONS
7 PLATES
8 RIBBED-TORSTEEL BARS
9 ROUND BARS
10 SQUARE BARS
11 T-SECTIONS

1)   ANGLE SECTIONS:
·        EQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS AVAILABLE IN SIZES VARYING FROM
20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 200 mm x 200 mm x 25 mm.
THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 9 N AND 736 N.
·        UNEQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN SIZES VARYING FROM
30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 200 mm x 150 mm x 18 mm.
THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 11 N AND 469 N.
·    ANGLE SECTIONS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED IN THE STRUCTURAL STEEL WORK ESPECIALLY IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEEL ROOF TRUSSES AND FILLER JOIST FLOORS.

(2)   CHANNEL SECTIONS:
·        A CHANNEL SECTION IS DESIGNATED BY THE HEIGHT OF THE WEB AND THE WIDTH OF THE FLANGE.
·        THESE SECTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN VARYING SIZES FROM 100 mm x 45 mm TO 400 mm x 100 mm
·        THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 58 N AND 494 N.
·        B.I.S HAS CLASSIFIED CHANNEL SECTIONS AS JUNIOR CHANNEL, LIGHT CHANNEL
AND MEDIUM CHANNEL AND ACCORDINGLY ARE DESIGNATED AS I.S.J.C., I.S.L.C., I.S.M.C. RESPECTIVELY.
·        CHANNEL SECTIONS ARE WIDELY USED AS THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
OF THE STEEL FRAMED STRUCTURES.
 
(3)   CORRUGATED SHEETS:
·        FORMED BY PASSING STEEL SHEETS THROUGH GROOVES. THESE GROOVES BEND AND PRESS
STEEL SHEETS AND CORRUGATIONS ARE FORMED ON THE SHEETS.
THESE CORRUGATED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED AND REFERRED AS G.I. SHEETS WIDELY USED FOR ROOF COVERING.
 
4) EXPANDED METAL:
·        THIS FORM OF STEEL IS AVAILABLE IN DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES.
·        PREPARED FROM THE SHEETS OF MILD STEEL WHICH ARE MACHINE CUT AND DRAWN OUT OR EXPANDED
TO GIVE DIMOND MESH LIKE APPEARANCE.
·        EXPANDED METAL IS WIDELY USED FOR REINFORCING CONCRETE IN
FOUNDATIONS, ROADS, FLOORS, BRIDGES ETC. ALSO USED AS LATHING MATERIAL AND FOR PARTITIONS.
 
(5)   FLAT BARS:
·        THESE ARE AVAILABLE IN SUITABLE WIDTHS VARYING FROM
10 mm TO 400 mm WITH THICKNESS VARYING FROM 3 mm TO 40 mm.
THEY ARE WIDELY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEEL GRILLWORK FOR WINDOWS AND GATES.
 
(6) I-SECTIONS:
·        THESE ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS THE ROLLED STEEL JOISTS OR BEANS. IT CONSISTS OF
TWO FLANGES CONNECTED BY A WEB. IT IS DESIGNATED BY OVERALL DEPTH, WIDTH OF FLANGE
AND WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH. THEY ARE AVAILABLE IN VARIOUS SIZES
VARYING FROM 75 mm x 50 mm AND 61 N TO 600 mm x 210 mm AT 995 N.
·        THE B.I.S HAS CLASSIFIED THE I-SECTIONS INTO JUNIOR BEAMS, LIGHT BEAMS,
MEDIUM BEAMS WIDE FLANGE BEAMS AND HEAVY BEAMS.
·        R.S. JOISTS ARE ECONOMICAL IN MATERIAL
AND THEY ARE SUITABLE FOR FLOOR BEAMS, LINTELS, COLUMNS ETC.

(7)   PLATES:
·        PLATE SECTIONS OF THE STEEL ARE AVAILABLE IN DIFFERENT SIZES WITH THICKNESSES
VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 50 mm. THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER SQUARE METRE ARE 392 N AND 3925 N RESPECTIVELY.
·        USED TO CONNECT STEEL BEAMS FOR EXTENSION OF THE LENGTH,
TO SERVE AS TENSIONAL MEMBERS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSS AND TO FORM BUILTUP SECTIONS OF STEEL.
 
(8)   RIBBED TOR STEEL BARS:
·        DEFORMED HIGH STRENGTH STEEL BARS.
·        THEY HAVE RIBBS OR PROJECTIONS ON THEIR SURFACES AND THEY ARE PRODUCED BY CONTROLLED
COLD TWISTING OF HOT ROLLED BARS. EACH BAR IS TO BE TWISTED INDIVIDUALLY AND IT IS TESTED TO
CONFIRM THE STANDARD REQUIREMENTS.
·        SIZES VARYING FROM 6 mm TO 50 mm DIAMETER WITH CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH
IS 2.22 N AND 154.10 N
·        WIDELY USED AS AN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE STRUCTURES SUCH AS BUILDINGS, BRIDGES,
DOCKS AND HARBOUR STRUCTURES, ROADS, IRRIGATION WORKS, PILE FOUNDATIONS, PRE CAST CONCRETE WORKS ETC.
 
(9)   ROUND BARS:
·        THESE ARE AVAILABLE IN CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTIONS WITH DIAMETERS
VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 250 mm. THEY ARE WIDELY USED AS REINFORCEMENT IN THE
CONCRETE STRUCTURES. CONSTRCUTION OF THE STEEL GRILL WORK ETC.
·        THE COMMONLY USED CROSS SECTIONS HAVE DIAMETERS VARYING FROM
5 mm TO 25 mm WITH THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHTS PER METRE LENGTH AS 1.5 N AND 38 N RESPECTIVELY.

(10)  SQUARE BARS:
·        AVAILABLE WITH SIDES VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 250 mm THEY ARE WIDELY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEEL
GRILL WORK FOR WINDOWS, GATES ETC.
·        THE COMMONLY USED CROSS SECTIONS HAVE SIDES VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 25 mm
WITH THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHTS PER METRE LENGTH AS 2 N AND 49 N RESPECTIVELY.
 
(11)T SECTIONS:
·        AVAILABLE IN THE SIZES VARYING FROM 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 150 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm
CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE 9 N AND 228 N RESPECTIVELY.
·        WIDELY USED AS MEMBERS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSSES AND TO FORM BUILTUP SECTIONS.

NON-FERROUS METALS

ALUMINIUM


OCCURS IN ABUNDANCE; AVALIABLE IN VAROUS FORMS SUCH AS OXIDES, SULPHATES, SILICATES, PHOSPHATES, ETC.
BUT COMMERTIALLY PRODUCED MAINLY FROM BAUXITE
(Al2O3, 2H2O) WHICH IS HYDRATED OXIDE OF ALUMINIUM.
 
MANUFACTURE:
BAUXITE IS GROUND & THEN IT IS PURIFIED.
·        THEN DISSOLVED IN CRYOLITE (DOUBLE FLUORIDE OF ALUMINIUM & SODIUM; AlF3, 3NaF.)
·        SOLUTION IS THEN TAKEN TO AN ELECTRIC FURNACE AND THE ALUMINIUM IS SEPARATED OUT BY ELECTROLYSIS.
 
PROPERTIES:
VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·        SILVERY WHITE METAL WITH BLUISH TINGE AND IF EXHIBITS BRIGHT LUSTRE ON A FRESHLY BROKEN SURFACE.
·        NON-MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE.
·        RARELY ATTACKED BY NITRIC ACID, ORGANIC ACID OR WATER. HIGHLY RESISTANT TO CORROSION.
·        LIGHT IN WEIGHT, MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·        VERY SOFT.
·        MELT AT 600OC AND BOILING POINT 2056OC.
·        POSSESSES GREAT TOUGHINESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH.
·        READILY DISSOLVES IN HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 2.70.

EVALUATION AS BUILDING MATERIAL:
·        AIR TIGHTNESS
·        APPEARANCE
·        CRYGONIGS (ALUMINIUM IS HIGHLY SUITABLE FOR SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES
WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL BECOMES EXTREMELY BRITTLE.)
·        EASY IN FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY
·        LOW HANDLING & TRANSPORT COST
·        HIGH CORROSION RESISTANCE
·        HIGH REFLECTIVITY
·        HIGH SCRAP VALUE
·        HIGH STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO
·        NEGLIGIBLE MAINTENANCE COST (UPTO 25 – 30 YEARS)
·        EXCELLENT REFLECTOR OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC AND SOUND WAVES,
THEREFORE NOISE CONTROL


FORMS OF ALUMINIUM:
·  CASTING BASED
·  BALUSTER HEAD
·  HARDWARE & FITTINGS
·  SECURITY & DECORATIVE GRILLS


 ·  EXTRUSION BASED
·  DOOR & WINDOW FRAMES
·  FASCIA PANEL & CURTAIN WALL
·  GEODESIC DOMES & SPACE GRIDS
·  GREEN HOUSES & ROOF TOP GARDENS
·  HARDWARE & FITTINGS
·  NORTH LIGHT GLAZING FRAMES
·  PARTATIONS & SPACE DIVIDERS
 ·  FOIL & POWDER BASED
·  DECORATIVE LAMINATE
·  INSULATIVE FOILS CONVENIENTLY USED FOR INSULATING AIR CONDITIONING DUCTS IN LARGE
CENTRAL A.C. SYSTEMS
·  ALUMINIUM POWDER BASED CORRSION RESISTANT PAINTS
·  WATER PROOF SHEET
 ·  SHEET BASED
·  ELECTRIC CABLE TRAYS
·  PLANER OR FLAT TYPE FALSE CEILINGS
·  PREFABRICATED HOUSES
·  RAIN WATER HARVEST ARTICLES
·  RIDGING & ANGLE OF ROOF
·  ROOFING & SIDING

 USES:
·  REDUCING AGENT IN THE MANUFACTURING OF STEEL
·  FOR MAKING ALLOYS, AUTOMOBILE BODIES, ENGINE PARTS AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS
·  CASTING OF STEEL
·  MANUFACTURING OF ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS
·  MANUFACTURING OF PAINTS

COBALT


MANUFACTURE:
ORES (ARSENIDE & SULPHARSNIDE) ARE PURIFIED & FUSED WITH LIMESTONE OR SAND
IN BLAST FURNACE TO GIVE IMPURE OXIDE OF COBALT.
 
PROPERTIES:
IF RED HOT, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·        IN FINELY GROUND POWDER FORM, IT MAY ABSORB HYDROGEN TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 150 TIMES ITS VOLUME.
·        LUSTEROUS WHITE METAL.
·        MAGNETIC (UPTO 1100OC)
·        MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY ATMOSPHERE AT ORDINARY TEMP.
·        MELT AT 1480OC AND BOILING POINT 2900OC.
·        NOT ATTACKED BY ALKALIES
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.90
 
USES:
·        PREPARATION OF SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL
·        CERAMIC PRODUCTS
·        T.V. ARTICLES
·        BASIS OF ALL BLUE COLORS USED IN GLASS & PORCELAIN MANUFACTURE.

COPPER
ORES:
CUPRITE OR RED OXIDE OF COPPER (Cu2O) – 88%
·        COPPER GLANCE (Cu2S) – 80%
·  COPPER PYRITES (CuFeS2) – 35%
·   MALACHITE OR GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER (CuCo3, Cu (OH) 2) – 56%
·    AZURITE OR BLUE MALACHITE (2CuCo3, Cu (OH) 2) – 55%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ORES (USUALLY PYRITES) ARE CLEANED & CRUSHED & THEY ARE THEN CALCINED IN A REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
MIXED WITH SILICA & SMALL QTY. OF COKE & SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE.
OXIDISED IN BESSEMER CONVERTER TO BLISTER COPPER.
IMPURITIES REMOVED BY MELTING IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE IN PRESENCE OF AIR.
SLAG IS REMOVED AND PURE COPPER TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 99.70 % IS OBTAINED.
PURE COPPER IS OBTAINED BY PROCESS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

PROPERTIES:
·  VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·  BECOMES BRITTLE JUST BELOW ITS MELTING POINT.
·  CAN BE WORKED IN COLD OR HOT CONDITION, CANNOT BE WELDED.
·  PECULIAR REDDISH BROWN COLOUR.
·  ATTACKED BY STEAM AT WHITE HEAT.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY DRY AIR, BUT MOIST AIR GIVES A GREEN COATING TO THE COPPER SURFACE.
·  MALLEABLE & DUCTILE & EXTREMELY SOFT.
·  MELT AT 1083OC AND BOILING POINT 2300OC.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY WATER AT ANY TEMP.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.92
 
USES:
·        MARKET FORMS OF COPPER ARE INGOTS, SHEETS, TUBES AND WIRES.
·        EXTENSIVELY USED FOR MAKING ELECTRIC CABLES, ALLOYS HOUSEHOLD UTENSILES, ELECTROPLATING,
LIGHTINING CONDUCTORS, AND DOWELS IN STONE MASONRY ETC.
·        MANUFACTURE ALLOYS OF BRASS & BRONZE.

LEAD
ORES:
CAIENA (PbS) – 84% LEAD & 14% SULPHUR
·        ANGLESITE - 68%
·        BOURNONITE – 40%
·        CERUSSITE – 77%
·        MIMETESITE – 75%
·        PYROMORPHITE – 75%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ORES ARE GROUNDED & SEIVED. IMPURITIES ARE SEGREGATED AS FAR AS PRACTICIBLE &
FURTFER FLOTATION MACHINE IS USED.
·        COKE & METALLIC IRON ARE ADDED TO THE ORES.
·        MIXTURE BY SMELTING IN BLAST FURNACE.
IMPURE LEAD IS OBTAINED WHICH IS FURTTHER PURIFIED IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
 
PROPERTIES:
·  CAN BE CUT WITH A KNIFE.
·  MAKES IMPRESSIONS ON PAPER.
·  LUSTEROUS METAL WITH BLUISH GREY COLOUR.
·  CONVERTED INTO LITHARGE, WHEN HEATED STRONGLY IN PRESENCE OF OXYGEN.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY DRY AIR, BUT MOIST AIR TAKES AWAY ITS BRIGHT METALLIC LUSTRE & A
DARK PROTECTIVE FILM IS PRODUCED ON THE SURFACE OF METAL.
·  POSSES LITTLE TENACITY.
·  READILY DISSOLVES IN DILUTE NITRIC ACID.
·  EXTREMELY SOFT, PLASTIC & ALMOST DEVOID OF ELASTICITY.
·  MELT AT 327.5OC AND BOILING POINT 1620OC.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 11.36
USES:
·        SHOTS, BULLETS, ALLOYS, STORAGE CELLS, SANITARY FITTINGS, CISTERNS, WATER PROOF COURSES,
CABLE COVERINGS, PREPARATION OF LEAD OXIDES FOR PAINTS, ETC

MAGNESIUM
ORES:
MAGENESITE (MgCO3)
DOLOMTE (Ca3 CO3, MgCO3)
KIESERITE (MgSO4, H2O)
CARNALLITE (MgCl2, KCl, 6H2O)
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION, ANHYDROUS MAGNESIUM CHLORITE IS HEATED WITH SODIUM IN PRESENCE OF COAL GAS.
·        LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION, ELECTROLYSIS OF FUSED CARNALLITE.
 
PROPERTIES:
·  BURNS WHEN HEATED IN AIR WITH A DAZZLING BLUISH WHITE LIGHT EXTREMELY RICH IN U.V. RAYS.
·  CARRIES AWAY HEAT EASILY.
·  FORM OF FINELY DIVIDED PARTICLES, IT BURNS READILY AND EASILY.
·  IF STRONGLY HEATED, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·  SILVER WHITE METAL POSSESSING A HIGH LUSTRE.
·  NOT AFFECTED BY ALKALIES.
·  MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·  MELT AT 651OC AND BOILING POINT 1110OC.
·  THERMAL COFFICIENT IS HIGH.
 
USES:
·        PHOTOGRAPHY, FIRE WORKS, SIGNALLING PAINTS, WHITENING PAPER PULP, ETC.
·        CANNOT BE USED IN STRUCTURAL PARTS, REFRACTORY MATERIAL IN THE FORM OF
MAGNESIA BRICKS FOR THE LINING OF STEEL AND ELECTRIC FURNACES.
USED AS CEMENTING MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL STONE, PLASTER, TILES, ETC
 
NICKEL



MANUFACTURE:
·        ORES ARE SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE ALONG WITH LIMESTONE, QUARTZ AND COKE AND ELECTROLIYSED.
 
PROPERTIES:
IF RED HOT, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·        IN FINELY GROUND POWDER FORM, IT MAY ABSORB HYDROGEN TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 17 TIMES ITS VOLUME.
·        GREYISH WHITE LUSTEROUS METAL.
·  CAPABLE OF TAKING HIGH POLISH AND CAN BE WELDED.
·  FAIRLY RESISTANT TO THE ACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERE AND IT BECOMES DULL AFTER ALONG TIME.
·  NOT AFFECTED BY FUSED ALKALIES.
·  HARD, MALLEABLE & MAGNETIC.
·  RESISTANCE TO CORROSION IS HIGH.
·  RANKS BELOW IRON IN ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY.
·  MELT AT 1452OC AND BOILING POINT 2900OC.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.90
 
·        USES:
·        WIDELY USED AS ACOATING FOR OTHER METALS AND FOR THE PREPARATIONS OF ALLOY LIKE GERMAN SILVER, NICKEL STEELS ETC.
·                    MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICAL APPRATUS CRUCIBLE, ELECTORPLATING PARTS OF MACHINE, DOMESTIC UTENSILS ETC

TIN

MANUFACTURE:
ORES ARE CALCINED AND SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE ALONG WITH ANTHRACITE COAL AND SAND & REFINED IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
 
PROPERTIES:
CRACKING NOISE IS DUE TO INTERNAL FRICTION OF CRYSTAL SURFACES ON BENDING.
·        BECOMES BRITTLE WHEN HEATED TO A TEMP. OF ABOUT 200OC
·        WHITE LUSTEROUS METAL.
·        DISSOLVES IN HCl WITH EVOLUTION OF HYDROGEN.
·        FAIRLY RESISTANT TO THE ACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERE AND IT BECOMES DULL AFTER ALONG TIME.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY DRY AIR & PURE WATER.
·        SOFT & MALLEABLE.
·        RESISTANCE TO CORROSION DUE TO ACIDS IS HIGH.
·        MELT AT 231.5OC AND BOILING POINT 2260OC.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.31
 
USES:
·        RARELY USED ALONE, USED FOR PLATING, LINING, LEAD PIPES AND FOR THE PREPARATION OF ALLOYS AND SOLDER.
·        MAKING EVAPORATING BASINS, INFUSION POTS, ETC. PROTECTIVE COATINGS TO COPPER AND IRON UTENSILS.
CANNING, TIN FOILS, SILVERING MIRRORS, PACKING FOOD ETC

ZINC
ORES:
ZINCITE OR RED ZINC ZnO
FRANKLINITE ZnO, Fe2O3
·        CALAMINE OR ZINC COPPER ZnCO3
·        ZINC BLENDE ZnS (CHIEH SOURCE) 50%-65%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ZINC ORE IS HEATED IN AH ELECTRIC FURNACE TO REMOVE ALL VOLATILE CONSTITUENTS PRESENT
N THE ORE. THE ZINC IS LIBRATED IN THE FORM OF VAPOUR. THIS IS THEN CONDENSED TO GET THE METALLIC ZINC.
 
PROPERTIES:
BURNS WITH A GREENISH FLAMES WHEN STRONGLY HEATED IN AIR.
MAY BE DRAWN INTO WIRES AND ROLLED INTO SHEETS BETWEEN TEMP. RANGE OF 100OC TO 150OC
·        BLUISH WHITE METAL
·        BRITTLE AT ORDINARY TEMP.
·  VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·        IN CONTACT OF IRON, COPPER, OR LEAD IN PRESENCE OF MOISTURE THE GALVANIC
ACTIONSTARTS AND THE ZINC IS QUICLY DESTROYED.
·  SHOULD BE KEPT CLEAR OF LIME AND CALCAREOUS SUBSTANCES
·  HARMFULLY ATTACKED AND ULTIMATELY DESTROYED BY ACID, HOT WATER AND SEA WATER.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY DRY AIR & PURE WATER.
·        RESISTANCE TO CORROSION.
·  MELT AT 419.4OC AND BOILING POINT 907OC.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.14
 
USES:
·        ELECTRIC CELL, GALVANIZING, PREPARATION OF ALLOY, PAINT,ETC.
·                    PROTECTIVE COVERING OR COAT TO IRON WORKS, PLAIN AND CORRUGATED SHEETS, IRON VESSELS ETC.

Architectural Presentation - TROPICAL GARDENS.

THE WORLD DIVIDED INTO 3 ZONES,
POLAR
TEMPERATE
TROPICAL

TROPICS IS THE AREA OF THE EARTH LYING BETWEEN THE NORTH AND
SOUTH POINTS OF SOLSTICE (I.E.) APP. 25 DEGREE NORTH AND SOUTH
LATITUDE.
ANY PLANT NATURALLY OCCURING BETWEEN THE TROPIC OF CANCER AND
THE TROPIC OF CAPRICORN IS A TROPICAL GARDEN PLANT.
TROPICAL REGIONS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
1.SUB-TROPICAL ZONES

2.HOT ARID ZONES

3.SAVANNA ZONES

4.MONSOON ZONES

5.HOT HUMID ZONES

VEGETATION CHARACTER----
1.SUB TROPICAL ZONE-
SPARSE TO LIGHT PLANT GROWTH.

2.HOT ARID ZONE-
LOW,SHALLOW-ROOTED GRASS,SMALL,THORNY BUSHES AND TREES,CACTII.
DESERT ALMOST WITHOUT VEGETATION AS THE UNDERGROUND WATER TABLE VERY LOW.
SCANTY PLANT GROWTH BRIEFLY AFTER RAINFALL,GROUND DRIES OUT AGAIN IMMEDIATELY.

3.SAVANNA ZONE-
VARIES AS THIS ZONE EXTENDS FROM JUNGLE TO DESERT,IN MAIN AREAS TALL TO VERY TALL GRASS,LOW GROWING THORN FOREST AND THORNY BUSHES.
DURING THE RAINY SEASON LUXURIANT GROWTH,OTHERWISE DRIED GRASS TOGETHER WITH LEAFLESS TREES AND BUSHES.

4.MONSOON ZONE-
FAIRLY ABUNDANT,EVEN IN DRY SEASON,HETEROGENOUS WITH TALL,DEEP ROOTED TREES.
HIGH GROUND MOISTURE CONTENT DURING RAINY SEASON,FALLING OFF RAPIDLY AFTERWARDS.

5.HOT HUMID ZONE-
LUXURIANT,SUPER ABUNDANT THROUGHOUT THE YEAR.
TALL TREES.
GROUND VERY MOIST,GROUND WATER LEVEL HIGH AT TIMES REACHING THE SURFACE.

6.MARITIME ZONE-
TREES GROW ONLY TO LOW OR MEDIUM HEIGHTS BECAUSE OF STRONG WINDS.
GROUND USUALLY RELATIVELY DRY,GROUND WATER TABLE FAIRLY HIGH.

7.MOUNTAIN ZONE-
EVERGREEN TREES FOUND NOT VERY TALL,NO EXTENSIVE FORESTS.
MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRASS UPTO 3FT.TALL,IN DRY SEASON COARSE AND ROBUST.

PLANTS------
FEW MAIN PLANT FAMILIES ARE MENTIONED BELOW:
1.TREES
2.PALMS
3.GROUND COVERS
4.BAMBOO
5.CREEPERS
6.WATER PLANTS

PLANTS-
ONE HAS TO OBSERVE THE PATTERN OF NATURE:THE LEAF PATTERN,THE GROWING PATTERNS,THE PATTERN OF CLIMATE AND THE LAY OF LAND.
ONE MUST COMPREHEND THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROUND-COVER’S,SHRUB’S,OR TREES LIFE CYCLE AND HOW IT BEHAVES ,AT EACH STAGE,AND IN DIFFERING SOIL AND SITE CONDITION
FEW MAIN PLANT FAMILIES OFTEN USED IN TROPICAL WORLD ARE ILLUSTRATED BELOW-

TREES AS CANOPIES-
CERTAIN UMBRELLA-LIKE TREES PROVIDE
HUGE POOLS OF SHADE,FOR RESPITE FROM
THE BLAZING SUN.
MOST TRADITIONAL VILLAGES AROUND
THE EQUATOR HAVE SUCH A TREE AT THEIR
CENTRE PLATFORMS OF ROCK.
BECAUSE OF THE SHELTER THEY OFFER ,THESE
AREAS OFTEN BECOME USED AS BUS STOPS,OFFERING PLATFORM….
EG. BODHI TREE,FICUS RELIGIOSA)

PALMS-
PALMS ARE A PART OF MANY TROPICAL
GARDEN COMPOSITIONS.
IT IS THE MOST “USER-FRIENDLY” PLANT OF
THE TROPICAL WORLD.
WHEN CHOOSING THE RIGHT PALM FOR A
LOCATION ONE SHOULD BE AWARE OF THEIR
SOIL PREFERANCES.
FOR EXAMPLE-
PRITCHARDIA PALMS AND COCONUT PALMS
THRIVE ON THE COAST.
SOME PALMS, LIKE THE LIVISTONA CHINENSIS,OFTEN USED IN SUBURBAN
PLANTER BOXES.

HERE CYCAS CIRCINALIS AND A STAND OF CANE PALMS (CHRYSALIDOCARPUS LUTESCENES) SOFTEN A BOARD ENTRANCE PATH INTO A BRISBANE GARDEN.

GROUND COVERS-
GRASS IS THE MOST PRACTICAL OF GROUND
COVERS-ITS THICK “PELT” IS CLEAN AND
MAINTAINANCE-FRIENDLY.
CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WHEN DECIDING
ON GRASS-
WHETHER COW GRASS,MANILA GRASS,TUFFY
JAPANESE GRASS,OR COUCH-FOR PARTICULAR SOIL
AND SUNLIGHT CONDITION.
GROUND COVERS LIKE COLEUS,WEDELIA,
CREEPING FERN AND PORTULACA NEED
SEASONAL RELANTING OR CUTTING BACK.
GROUNDCOVERS LIKE MONDOGRASS
(OTHIOPOGON),IN ALL ITS MANY SHAPES
AND SIZES,AND THE RHOEO ARE GREAT
TROPICAL PERFOMERS AS THEY ARE HARDY
AND FILL IN EASILY AROUND ACCENT PLANTS
AND OTHER SHRUBS.

HEMIGRAPHIS IS A HARDY AND SILVER-COLORED GROUNDCOVER.GROWS WELL IN DAPPLED LIGHT AND SHALLOW TOP SOIL

THE TERRACES OF THE BALI HYATT,SANUR

BAMBOO-


IT IS STATED THAT BAMBOO IS “THE
LANDSCAPER’S FRIEND”.
ALL MANNERS OF PERGOLAS,FENCES,
GATES,GARDEN FURNITURE,STEPS CAN
BE FASHIONED FROM BAMBOO.
AMONGST TROPICAL VARITIES ,

CREEPERS-
SHADE STRUCTURES LIKE THE PARGOLAS AND
TRELLISES,ARE AN IMPORTANT PART OF
TROPICAL GARDEN DESIGN.
FAST GROWING CREEPERS HELP MAKE TIMBER
LATTICEWORK INTO AN EFFICIENT AND
ATTRACTIVE SUN BLOCK.
CREEPERS LIKE MONSTERA DELICIOSA,THE VARIOUS
CLIMBING MEMBERS OF THE COLOURFUL PHILODENDRON FAMILY AND MIGHTY FICUS PUMILA ARE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN USED TO SOFTEN A COURTYARD.
THE BELLY BAMBOO(BAMBUSA
VENTRICOSA) AND THE GLAMEROUS
GOLDEN YELLOWARE USED.
OTHER BAMBOO VARITIES LIKE THE
HEDGE BAMBOO(PSEUDOSASA JAPONICA),
OSTRICH FEATHER AND GOLDEN BAMBOO
(PHYLLOSTACHYS AUREA)ARE USEFUL
WHEN HEDGING OR
SCREENING ARE REQUIRED ALONG A
BOUNDARY.

WATER PLANTS-
WATER PLANTS ARE EXTREMLY EASY TO TRANSPLANT AND PROPOGATE –PROVIDED
THERE IS ENOUGH SUNLIGHT AND WATER.
WATER PLANTS CAN HELP TO SOFTEN A WATER FEATURE.
BOGSIDE FLORA-LIKE THE BULRUSH,PAPYRUS AND IRIS ARE EXCELLENT FOR
SOFTENING THE WATER’S EDGE.
WATER HYACINTHS AND IRIS ARE WATER PLANTS WHICH THRIVE IN CONTAINERS
TOO.

WATER LETTUCE BULRUSHES AND A POTTED WRIGHTIA RELIGIOSA MAKE THIS UNIQUE WATER GARDEN

COURTYARDS,PATIOS,TERRACES,VERANDAH,PATHS AND PAVINGS.

THE VERANDAH-
TROPICAL GARDENS ARE OFTEN ADMIRED FROM
UNDER THE COOLING SHADE OF A VERANDAH OR
PAVILION.
IN THE TROPICS WE HAVE TO REMEMBER THAT
THE OFTEN RAPID GROWTH RATES OF CERTAIN
PLANTS REQUIRE US TO DESIGN-IN CONTINGENCIES
FOR RADICAL COMPOSITIONAL CHANGE.
A PICTURE SHOWING THE SEMICOVERED VERANDAH WITH WOODEN MEMBERS OVER WHICH CREEPERS WERE PLANTED.


COURTYARDS-IN ANCIENT COMMUNITIES OF TROPICAL ASIA,
THE WHOLE VILLAGE IS DESIGNED ALONG THE
COURTYARD ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLE.
THERE ARE SCULPTURE COURTS,WATER COURTS,
PALM COURTS,PEBBLE COURTS

ENTRANCE COURT IN BLACK CANDI STONE(ANDESITE)AT THE MAIN DINNING ROOM OF THE FOUR SEASONS RESORT

TERRACES AND PATIOS-
WELL- DESIGNED TROPICAL HOUSES HAVE
CLIMATE-FRIENDLY VERANDAHS OR TERRACES
ON WHICH TO PICK UP A PASSING BREEZE.
THESE TERRACES ARE OFTEN DECORATED
WITH POTTED PLANTS AND COMFORTABLE
FURNITURE.
PATIOS, OR OUTDOOR COURTS,WHETHER SURROUNDED ON ALL SIDES OR JUST OPEN TO SKY LIKE AN OUTDOOR SPACE,ARE A USEFUL ADDITION TO ANY TROPICAL HOUSE WITH RESPECT TO THE CLIMATE ZONE .
TERRACES AND PATIOS LOOK MORE DRAMATIC
WITH A TREE.
PONDS IN THE CENTRE OF A PATIO AND
AT THE SIDE OF A TERRACE ARE
EXCELLENT PASSIVE COOLING SYSTEMS.

THIS PATIO STYLE COURTYARD IN A MANILA SUBURBAN HOUSE USES A PLETHORA OF STRONG DECORATIVE ELEMENTS


BAMBOO OR TIMBER DECKS ARE A PLEASANT ADDITION TO ANY TROPICAL HOUSE-COOLING EFFECT,SHADY CORNERS IF WRAPPED AROUN THE TREES.

PATHS AND PAVINGS-
PAVERS AND PEBBLES OF SOME SORT ARE QUITE OFTEN A
NECCESITY.THE TRICK IS TO MAKE THEM LOOK LIKE A LUXURY.
THE CHOICE OF PAVERS HAVE A BIG INFLUENCE ON THE
GARDENS COMPOSITION.
HOLES IN THE PAVING SCHEME WITH TREES IN THEM ARE
ALWAYS A GOOD IDEA IN THE TROPICS,THEY ALLOW WATER
TO SOAK AWAY.
PEBBLES ,SPREAD THINLY ON A BRICK BASE OR THIN
CONCRETE SLAB.MAKE A CLEAN SPACIOUS LOOK.
THEY PROVIDE GOOD SURFACE DRAINAGE AND ARE
VERY USEFUL IN THE ZONE UNDER THE EAVE WHERE
GROUNDCOVERS TEND NOT TO GROW.

SOME INITIAL CRITERIA’S FOR JUDGING THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE
DESIGN OF A HOUSE IN HOT AND HUMID TROPICS ARE MENTIONED
BELOW-

HAVE A LIVING ROOM IN THE FOCUS OF THE HOUSE AND WHICH IS PERMANENTLY
OPEN TO SKY.
NOT TO DESTROY ANY SUBSTANTIAL TREES ON THE SITE AND BE IN HARMONY
WITH NATURE.
HAVE IN BETWEEN SPACES IN THE FORM OF A COURTYARD,VERANDAHS,TERRACES
AND SHADED BALCONIES.
BE SURROUNDED BY A GARDEN AND NON-REFLECTIVE LANDSCAPED SURFACES.
THE EXTENSIVE USE OF LANDSCAPE TO MODIFY THE MICRO-CLIMATE.
POOLS AND FOUNTAINS CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE COOLING EFFECT.