AR. LAURIE BAKER

BIOGRAPHY


Studied Architecture at The Birmingham School of Architecture.
In 1938, Associate of Royal Institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.)
In 1945, he came to India. In 1983, M.B.E. In 1987, received the first Indian National Habitat Award.
In 1989, Indian Institute of Architects Medal for Outstanding Architect of the year. In 1989, given Indian Citizenship.
In 1990, Grand Masters Award - Architect of the year. In 1991, Indian Institute of Architects Medal - Outstanding Architect. In 1992, UNO Habitat Award and Roll of Honour. In 1993, International Union of Architects - World Habitat Award. In 1995, University of Central England. Doctor of the University.

PROJECTS

Projects ranging from fishermen's villages to institutional complexes, low cost mud housing schemes to low cost cathedrals.
Centre for Development Studies, Ulloor, Trivandrum, 1971.
Houses at Archbishop Compound, Pattom, Trivandrum, 1970.
K.N.Raj's residence, Kumarapuram, Trivandrum, 1970.
House for R. Narayanan, Golf Links, Trivandrum, 1972-73.
Mitraniketan, Vellanad, Trivandrum - 1970
House for Dr A.Vaidyanathan, Kumarapuram, Trivandrum, 1972.
House for Leela Menon, Golf Links, Trivandrum, 1973-74.
House for Beena Sarasan (an Income Tax officer), Kowdiar, Trivandrum, 1989.

PHILOSOPHY

‘Mahatma Gandhi’ Laurie Baker’s inspiration.

One of his influences has been Mahatma Gandhi, for him proper development can be done if raw material is brought from a place in a range of 5-10 kms.
Laurie Baker’s architecture was a contemporary version of the vernacular.
He draws a creative sustenance from the environment in which he works, absorbing vernacular patterns of construction and individual styles of living to such a degree that he is able to give his clients.

The Loyola Chapel, reflecting Baker's mastery over light.

The forgotten vernacular techniques were used in his design.
He criticized the works of Le Corbusier, his structures were characterless.
Another inspiration for him has been ordinary men.

Laurie’s philosophy of contemporary version of the vernacular.





CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Baker creates a variety of textures and patterns by simple manipulation of the way in which bricks are placed in the wall.

The upturned, horned roofs of buildings as found in Kerala are the direct result of the people of those places, they knew that hot air rises & allowed it to travel upwards from the low eaves to the openings at the ends of the high ridge. They understood and applied principles of insulation; then roofing materials formed hollow cellular protective layers.
Concrete is used sparingly often in a folded slab design with waste & discarded tiles used as fillers thereby making the roof light.
He used jalis which had many advantages, such as ventilation, enough light, less material required.

‘THE HAMLET’

‘The Hamlet’ built on a steeply contoured site

An architects personality is reflected in the way he designs his own house.
1st built a single room hut of timber. It housed the library of medical books & also as B.R, L.R, D.R & study.
The site was highly contoured and rocky, but baker did not disturb even a single rock or a tree, so it is popularly named as “right in the rocks”.
A house was built on the lower contour for the 4 nieces who moved to Trivandrum. One more house was built for his son Tilak which faced the trees.

The living room of ‘The Hamlet'

Bakers innovative use of discarded bottles

The incursion of structures on the site is not felt.
Baker has managed to confine this building to an area that is easily accessible& yet secluded by the heavy foliage.
Laurie Baker used material from other demolished structures. Wood planks from an old boat jetty. He even used old bottles in another structure, which gives a different effect.
The journey to Bakers home is like from a concrete jungle of Trivandrum to the freshness & shade of the suburbs.


‘Nicery’ for his 4 nieces.

CENTER FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

The Computer center at the ‘Center for Development studies’

Established in 1965 for promoting economic development, so Laurie Baker was the obvious choice.
All the concerns of his architectural practice the sensitivity to the natural contours & elements of a site, the honest & optimum utilization of the materials find an expression in the plan & structures of the center.
It has all the Baker characteristics- the jalis, the traditional roofs, the stepped arches, the overhanging eaves and the skylights.
Baker is able to transform vernacular architecture to suit the requirements of a modern academic institution.




COST SAVING TECHNIQUES






Using corbelling instead of a lintel above the frame, this reduces the cost of the R.C.C lintel.
Using less number of bricks to make a wall of same thickness and providing cavities in between for insulation.
Reducing the unnecessary cost of a window with a shutter.
Using ‘jali’ in his walls for proper cross ventilation, enough sun light etc.

Architectural Presentation - POLYSTYRENE USED FOR HEAT INSULATION.

WHAT IS HEAT INSULATION?

Heat insulation is the method of preventing heat from escaping a container or from entering the container.

In other words, thermal insulation can keep an enclosed area such as a building warm, or it can keep the inside of a container cold.

Heat is transferred from one material to another by conduction, convection and/or radiation.

Insulators are used to minimize transfer of heat energy.

Molded Expanded Polystyrene (MEPS) Foam Board

MEPS is a closed-cell material that can be molded into many items, such as coffee cups and shipping materials, or into large sheets as construction insulation.

This material is commonly
known as "bead board," and
it has R-value of about
4 per inch of thickness [2.54 cm].

R-value

The R-value of a material is its resistance to heat flow and is an indication of its ability to insulate. It is used as a standard way of telling how good a material will insulate.The higher the R-value, the better the insulation.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

The physical properties of MEPS vary with the type of bead used, but the density of the board is usually one pound per cubic foot (16.3 kilograms per cubic meter.)


MAKING OF POLYSTYRENE

To make bead board, loose, unexpanded polystyrene
beads containing liquid pentane are mixed with a blowing agent and poured into an enclosed container.
The mixture is then heated
to expand the beads many
times their original size.
The beads are then injected
into a mold and under more
heat and pressure expand to become foam blocks that
are then shaped as required.

Bead board is manufactured at various densities, depending on the application.

Bead board for roofing materials has to be dense enough to walk on without damage.
Wall insulation boards are several times less dense than roof boards.
R-values range from 3.8 to 4.4 per inch (2.54 cm) of thickness.
Since spaces between the foam beads can absorb water, a vapor diffusion retarded is necessary if water transmission through the insulation might cause a problem for the user.

Used where:

Roofs, walls, foundations, entry and overhead garage doors, pipes and tanks, under basement slabs, or over a slab-on-grade floor.

Architectural presentation-METALS

IRON
ORES:
HAEMATITE (Fe2O3)----65%-70%
LIMONITE (2Fe2O3, 3H2O)----60%
MAGNETITE (Fe3O4)----70%-73%
PYRITE (FeS2)----45%-47%
SIDERITE (FeCO3)----40%
 
PIG IRON
MANUFACTURE:
DRESSING
·        CALCINATION AND ROASTING IN BLAST FURNACE
·        SMELTING

·         (PIG IRON OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 93 TO 95% OF IRON, @ 4 TO5 %
OF CARBON AND REMAINING BEING SULPHUR, SILICON, MANGANESE,
PHOSPHORUS, ETC. THE SLAG OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 45% OF LIME,
@35% OF SILICA, @ 12% OF ALUMINA AND THE REMAINING BEING
OTHER IMPURITIES SUCH AS MAGNESIA, CALCIUM SULPHATE,
MANGANEESE OXIDE, ETC. SLAG MAY BE USED AS

·         IN CEMENT CONCRETE AS COARSE AGGREGATE,
·         IN MAKING ROADS AS ROAD METAL,
·         IN RAILWAYS AS BALLAST,
·         IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BLAST FURNACE CEMENT, ETC.)
 
·         ELECTRIC REDUCTION FURNACE
·         LOW SHAFT BLAST FURNACE
·         SPONGE IRON PROCESS
 
TYPES:
·        BESSEMER PIG
·        GREY PIG
·        WHITE IRON
·        MOTTLED IRON

PROPERTIES:
CAN BE HARDENED BUT NOT TEMPRED.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED.
CANNOT BE WELDED OR RIVETED.
DOES NOT RUST.
DIFFICULT TO BEND.
HARD AND BRITTLE.
NEITHER DUCTILE NOR MALLEABLE.
MELTS EASILY & ITS FUSION TEMP. IS 1200OC.
HIGH COMPRESSION STRENGTH. BUT IT IS WEAK IN TENSION & SHEAR.
 
USES:
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL BY BESSEMER OR ACID OPEN HEARTH PROCESS.
·                    CAST IRON CASTING.
·                    MANUFACTURE OF WROUGHT IRON.
·                    ORNAMENTAL CASTINGS &HEAVY FOUNDRY CASTINGS.

CAST IRON
COMPOSITION:
2% TO 4% CARBON + IMPURITIES (MANGANESE, PHOSPHORUS, SILICON AND SULPHUR)
MANUFACTURE:
·         REMELTING PIG IRON WITH COKE & LIMESTONE INCUPOLA FURNACE
 
TYPES:
·  GREY CAST IRON.
·  WHITE CAST IRON.
·  MOTTLED CAST IRON.
·  CHILLED CAST IRON.
·  MALLEABLE CAST IRON.
·  TOUHENED CAST IRON.
·                     
PROPERTIES:
GRANULAR STRUCTURE & CRYSTALLINE WITH WHITISH OR GREYISH TINGE.
CAN BE HARDENED BY HEATING AND SUDDEN COOLING, BUT IT CANNOT BE TEMPERED.
SHRINKS ON COOLING, USED FOR MAKING PATTERNS OR MOULDS FOR FOUNDRY WORK.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED, DOES NOT RUST EASILY, FUSIBLE, HARD BUT BRITTLE.
NOT DUCTILE, CANNOT ABSORB SHOCKS & IMPACT.
BECOMES SOFT, WHEN PLACED IN SALT WATER.
MELT AT @ 1250OC.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.5.
HIGH COMPRESSION STRENGTH. BUT IT IS WEAK IN TENSION.
POSSESSES TENSILE STRENGTH @ 150 N PER mm2 & COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 600 N PER mm2.
LACKS PLASTICITY, HENCE UNSUITABLE FOR FORGING WORK.
CANNOT BE WELDED OR RIVRTED, HENCE BOLTED.

USES:
MAKING CISTERNS, WATER PIPES, GAS PIPES AND SEWERS, MANHOLE COVERS AND SANITARY FITTINGS.
ORNAMENTAL CASTINGS SUCH AS BRACKETS, GATE, LAMPS, POSTS, SPIRAL STAIRCASES, ETC
MANUFACTURING COMPRESSION MEMBERS LIKE COLUMNS & BASES.

WROUGHT IRON
COMPOSITION:
0.15% CARBON
 
MANUFACTURE:
·         REFINING
·         PUDDLING
·         SHINGLING
·         ROLLING
·         ASTON’S PROCESS
 
PROPERTIES:
EASILY FORGED AND WELDED AS IT SOFTENS ON HEATING.
CANNOT BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
FUSES WITH DIFFICULTY THEREFORE CANNOT ADOPTED FOR MAKING CASTINGS.
FRESH FRACTURES SHOWS CLEAR BLUISH COLOUR WITH A HIGH SILKY LUSTER AND FIBROUS APPEARANCE.
MODERATELY ELASTIC.
UNAFFECTED BY SALINE WATER.
BETTER CORROSION RESISTANCE.
TOUGH, MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1500OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 400 N PER mm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 200 N PER mm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH @ 110 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.8.
 
 
USES:
REPLACED AT PRESENT BY EXTENT BY MILD STEEL.
MANUFACTURING BOLTS AND NUTS, HORSE SHOE BARS, HANDRAILS, STRAPS FOR
TIMBER ROOF TRUSSES, BOLIER TUBES, ROOFING SHEETS ETC.

STEEL
MANUFACTURE:
1 BESSEMER PROCESS
2 CEMENTATION PROCESS
3 CRUCIBLE STEEL PROCESS
4 DUPLEX PROCESS
5 ELECTRIC PROCESS
6 L.D. PROCESS
7 OPEN HEARTH PROCESS.

PROPERTIES:
MILD STEEL:
CAN BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
CAN BE READILY FORGED AND WELDED.
CANNOT BE EASILY ATTACKED BY SALT WATER.
TOUGHER & MORE ELASTIC THAN WROUGHT IRON.
USED FOR ALL TYPES OF STRUCTURAL WORKS.
MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1400OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 60 TO 80 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 80 TO 120 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.80

HARD STEEL:
EASILY HARDENED & TEMPERED.
GRANULAR STRUCTURE.
CAN BE MAGNETISED PARMANENTLY.
CAN BE READILY FORGED AND WELDED.
CANNOT BE EASILY ATTACKED BY SALT WATER.
TOUGHER & MORE ELASTIC THAN WROUGHT IRON.
USED FOR ALL TYPES OF STRUCTURAL WORKS.
MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
MELTING POINT 1300OC .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH @ 80 TO 110 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 140 TO 200 kN PER cm2 .
POSSESSES ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH @ 110 kN PER cm2 .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.90

MARKET FORMS OF STEEL & USES:
 
1 ANGLE SECTIONS
2 CHANNEL SECTIONS
3 CORRUGATED SHEETS
4 EXPANDED METAl
5 FLAT BARS
6 I-SECTIONS
7 PLATES
8 RIBBED-TORSTEEL BARS
9 ROUND BARS
10 SQUARE BARS
11 T-SECTIONS

1)   ANGLE SECTIONS:
·        EQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS AVAILABLE IN SIZES VARYING FROM
20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 200 mm x 200 mm x 25 mm.
THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 9 N AND 736 N.
·        UNEQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN SIZES VARYING FROM
30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 200 mm x 150 mm x 18 mm.
THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 11 N AND 469 N.
·    ANGLE SECTIONS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED IN THE STRUCTURAL STEEL WORK ESPECIALLY IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEEL ROOF TRUSSES AND FILLER JOIST FLOORS.

(2)   CHANNEL SECTIONS:
·        A CHANNEL SECTION IS DESIGNATED BY THE HEIGHT OF THE WEB AND THE WIDTH OF THE FLANGE.
·        THESE SECTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN VARYING SIZES FROM 100 mm x 45 mm TO 400 mm x 100 mm
·        THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE RESPECTIVELY 58 N AND 494 N.
·        B.I.S HAS CLASSIFIED CHANNEL SECTIONS AS JUNIOR CHANNEL, LIGHT CHANNEL
AND MEDIUM CHANNEL AND ACCORDINGLY ARE DESIGNATED AS I.S.J.C., I.S.L.C., I.S.M.C. RESPECTIVELY.
·        CHANNEL SECTIONS ARE WIDELY USED AS THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
OF THE STEEL FRAMED STRUCTURES.
 
(3)   CORRUGATED SHEETS:
·        FORMED BY PASSING STEEL SHEETS THROUGH GROOVES. THESE GROOVES BEND AND PRESS
STEEL SHEETS AND CORRUGATIONS ARE FORMED ON THE SHEETS.
THESE CORRUGATED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED AND REFERRED AS G.I. SHEETS WIDELY USED FOR ROOF COVERING.
 
4) EXPANDED METAL:
·        THIS FORM OF STEEL IS AVAILABLE IN DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES.
·        PREPARED FROM THE SHEETS OF MILD STEEL WHICH ARE MACHINE CUT AND DRAWN OUT OR EXPANDED
TO GIVE DIMOND MESH LIKE APPEARANCE.
·        EXPANDED METAL IS WIDELY USED FOR REINFORCING CONCRETE IN
FOUNDATIONS, ROADS, FLOORS, BRIDGES ETC. ALSO USED AS LATHING MATERIAL AND FOR PARTITIONS.
 
(5)   FLAT BARS:
·        THESE ARE AVAILABLE IN SUITABLE WIDTHS VARYING FROM
10 mm TO 400 mm WITH THICKNESS VARYING FROM 3 mm TO 40 mm.
THEY ARE WIDELY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEEL GRILLWORK FOR WINDOWS AND GATES.
 
(6) I-SECTIONS:
·        THESE ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS THE ROLLED STEEL JOISTS OR BEANS. IT CONSISTS OF
TWO FLANGES CONNECTED BY A WEB. IT IS DESIGNATED BY OVERALL DEPTH, WIDTH OF FLANGE
AND WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH. THEY ARE AVAILABLE IN VARIOUS SIZES
VARYING FROM 75 mm x 50 mm AND 61 N TO 600 mm x 210 mm AT 995 N.
·        THE B.I.S HAS CLASSIFIED THE I-SECTIONS INTO JUNIOR BEAMS, LIGHT BEAMS,
MEDIUM BEAMS WIDE FLANGE BEAMS AND HEAVY BEAMS.
·        R.S. JOISTS ARE ECONOMICAL IN MATERIAL
AND THEY ARE SUITABLE FOR FLOOR BEAMS, LINTELS, COLUMNS ETC.

(7)   PLATES:
·        PLATE SECTIONS OF THE STEEL ARE AVAILABLE IN DIFFERENT SIZES WITH THICKNESSES
VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 50 mm. THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER SQUARE METRE ARE 392 N AND 3925 N RESPECTIVELY.
·        USED TO CONNECT STEEL BEAMS FOR EXTENSION OF THE LENGTH,
TO SERVE AS TENSIONAL MEMBERS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSS AND TO FORM BUILTUP SECTIONS OF STEEL.
 
(8)   RIBBED TOR STEEL BARS:
·        DEFORMED HIGH STRENGTH STEEL BARS.
·        THEY HAVE RIBBS OR PROJECTIONS ON THEIR SURFACES AND THEY ARE PRODUCED BY CONTROLLED
COLD TWISTING OF HOT ROLLED BARS. EACH BAR IS TO BE TWISTED INDIVIDUALLY AND IT IS TESTED TO
CONFIRM THE STANDARD REQUIREMENTS.
·        SIZES VARYING FROM 6 mm TO 50 mm DIAMETER WITH CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH
IS 2.22 N AND 154.10 N
·        WIDELY USED AS AN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE STRUCTURES SUCH AS BUILDINGS, BRIDGES,
DOCKS AND HARBOUR STRUCTURES, ROADS, IRRIGATION WORKS, PILE FOUNDATIONS, PRE CAST CONCRETE WORKS ETC.
 
(9)   ROUND BARS:
·        THESE ARE AVAILABLE IN CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTIONS WITH DIAMETERS
VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 250 mm. THEY ARE WIDELY USED AS REINFORCEMENT IN THE
CONCRETE STRUCTURES. CONSTRCUTION OF THE STEEL GRILL WORK ETC.
·        THE COMMONLY USED CROSS SECTIONS HAVE DIAMETERS VARYING FROM
5 mm TO 25 mm WITH THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHTS PER METRE LENGTH AS 1.5 N AND 38 N RESPECTIVELY.

(10)  SQUARE BARS:
·        AVAILABLE WITH SIDES VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 250 mm THEY ARE WIDELY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEEL
GRILL WORK FOR WINDOWS, GATES ETC.
·        THE COMMONLY USED CROSS SECTIONS HAVE SIDES VARYING FROM 5 mm TO 25 mm
WITH THE CORRESPONDING WEIGHTS PER METRE LENGTH AS 2 N AND 49 N RESPECTIVELY.
 
(11)T SECTIONS:
·        AVAILABLE IN THE SIZES VARYING FROM 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm TO 150 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm
CORRESPONDING WEIGHT PER METRE LENGTH ARE 9 N AND 228 N RESPECTIVELY.
·        WIDELY USED AS MEMBERS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSSES AND TO FORM BUILTUP SECTIONS.

NON-FERROUS METALS

ALUMINIUM


OCCURS IN ABUNDANCE; AVALIABLE IN VAROUS FORMS SUCH AS OXIDES, SULPHATES, SILICATES, PHOSPHATES, ETC.
BUT COMMERTIALLY PRODUCED MAINLY FROM BAUXITE
(Al2O3, 2H2O) WHICH IS HYDRATED OXIDE OF ALUMINIUM.
 
MANUFACTURE:
BAUXITE IS GROUND & THEN IT IS PURIFIED.
·        THEN DISSOLVED IN CRYOLITE (DOUBLE FLUORIDE OF ALUMINIUM & SODIUM; AlF3, 3NaF.)
·        SOLUTION IS THEN TAKEN TO AN ELECTRIC FURNACE AND THE ALUMINIUM IS SEPARATED OUT BY ELECTROLYSIS.
 
PROPERTIES:
VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·        SILVERY WHITE METAL WITH BLUISH TINGE AND IF EXHIBITS BRIGHT LUSTRE ON A FRESHLY BROKEN SURFACE.
·        NON-MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE.
·        RARELY ATTACKED BY NITRIC ACID, ORGANIC ACID OR WATER. HIGHLY RESISTANT TO CORROSION.
·        LIGHT IN WEIGHT, MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·        VERY SOFT.
·        MELT AT 600OC AND BOILING POINT 2056OC.
·        POSSESSES GREAT TOUGHINESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH.
·        READILY DISSOLVES IN HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 2.70.

EVALUATION AS BUILDING MATERIAL:
·        AIR TIGHTNESS
·        APPEARANCE
·        CRYGONIGS (ALUMINIUM IS HIGHLY SUITABLE FOR SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES
WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL BECOMES EXTREMELY BRITTLE.)
·        EASY IN FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY
·        LOW HANDLING & TRANSPORT COST
·        HIGH CORROSION RESISTANCE
·        HIGH REFLECTIVITY
·        HIGH SCRAP VALUE
·        HIGH STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO
·        NEGLIGIBLE MAINTENANCE COST (UPTO 25 – 30 YEARS)
·        EXCELLENT REFLECTOR OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC AND SOUND WAVES,
THEREFORE NOISE CONTROL


FORMS OF ALUMINIUM:
·  CASTING BASED
·  BALUSTER HEAD
·  HARDWARE & FITTINGS
·  SECURITY & DECORATIVE GRILLS


 ·  EXTRUSION BASED
·  DOOR & WINDOW FRAMES
·  FASCIA PANEL & CURTAIN WALL
·  GEODESIC DOMES & SPACE GRIDS
·  GREEN HOUSES & ROOF TOP GARDENS
·  HARDWARE & FITTINGS
·  NORTH LIGHT GLAZING FRAMES
·  PARTATIONS & SPACE DIVIDERS
 ·  FOIL & POWDER BASED
·  DECORATIVE LAMINATE
·  INSULATIVE FOILS CONVENIENTLY USED FOR INSULATING AIR CONDITIONING DUCTS IN LARGE
CENTRAL A.C. SYSTEMS
·  ALUMINIUM POWDER BASED CORRSION RESISTANT PAINTS
·  WATER PROOF SHEET
 ·  SHEET BASED
·  ELECTRIC CABLE TRAYS
·  PLANER OR FLAT TYPE FALSE CEILINGS
·  PREFABRICATED HOUSES
·  RAIN WATER HARVEST ARTICLES
·  RIDGING & ANGLE OF ROOF
·  ROOFING & SIDING

 USES:
·  REDUCING AGENT IN THE MANUFACTURING OF STEEL
·  FOR MAKING ALLOYS, AUTOMOBILE BODIES, ENGINE PARTS AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS
·  CASTING OF STEEL
·  MANUFACTURING OF ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS
·  MANUFACTURING OF PAINTS

COBALT


MANUFACTURE:
ORES (ARSENIDE & SULPHARSNIDE) ARE PURIFIED & FUSED WITH LIMESTONE OR SAND
IN BLAST FURNACE TO GIVE IMPURE OXIDE OF COBALT.
 
PROPERTIES:
IF RED HOT, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·        IN FINELY GROUND POWDER FORM, IT MAY ABSORB HYDROGEN TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 150 TIMES ITS VOLUME.
·        LUSTEROUS WHITE METAL.
·        MAGNETIC (UPTO 1100OC)
·        MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY ATMOSPHERE AT ORDINARY TEMP.
·        MELT AT 1480OC AND BOILING POINT 2900OC.
·        NOT ATTACKED BY ALKALIES
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.90
 
USES:
·        PREPARATION OF SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL
·        CERAMIC PRODUCTS
·        T.V. ARTICLES
·        BASIS OF ALL BLUE COLORS USED IN GLASS & PORCELAIN MANUFACTURE.

COPPER
ORES:
CUPRITE OR RED OXIDE OF COPPER (Cu2O) – 88%
·        COPPER GLANCE (Cu2S) – 80%
·  COPPER PYRITES (CuFeS2) – 35%
·   MALACHITE OR GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER (CuCo3, Cu (OH) 2) – 56%
·    AZURITE OR BLUE MALACHITE (2CuCo3, Cu (OH) 2) – 55%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ORES (USUALLY PYRITES) ARE CLEANED & CRUSHED & THEY ARE THEN CALCINED IN A REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
MIXED WITH SILICA & SMALL QTY. OF COKE & SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE.
OXIDISED IN BESSEMER CONVERTER TO BLISTER COPPER.
IMPURITIES REMOVED BY MELTING IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE IN PRESENCE OF AIR.
SLAG IS REMOVED AND PURE COPPER TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 99.70 % IS OBTAINED.
PURE COPPER IS OBTAINED BY PROCESS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

PROPERTIES:
·  VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·  BECOMES BRITTLE JUST BELOW ITS MELTING POINT.
·  CAN BE WORKED IN COLD OR HOT CONDITION, CANNOT BE WELDED.
·  PECULIAR REDDISH BROWN COLOUR.
·  ATTACKED BY STEAM AT WHITE HEAT.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY DRY AIR, BUT MOIST AIR GIVES A GREEN COATING TO THE COPPER SURFACE.
·  MALLEABLE & DUCTILE & EXTREMELY SOFT.
·  MELT AT 1083OC AND BOILING POINT 2300OC.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY WATER AT ANY TEMP.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.92
 
USES:
·        MARKET FORMS OF COPPER ARE INGOTS, SHEETS, TUBES AND WIRES.
·        EXTENSIVELY USED FOR MAKING ELECTRIC CABLES, ALLOYS HOUSEHOLD UTENSILES, ELECTROPLATING,
LIGHTINING CONDUCTORS, AND DOWELS IN STONE MASONRY ETC.
·        MANUFACTURE ALLOYS OF BRASS & BRONZE.

LEAD
ORES:
CAIENA (PbS) – 84% LEAD & 14% SULPHUR
·        ANGLESITE - 68%
·        BOURNONITE – 40%
·        CERUSSITE – 77%
·        MIMETESITE – 75%
·        PYROMORPHITE – 75%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ORES ARE GROUNDED & SEIVED. IMPURITIES ARE SEGREGATED AS FAR AS PRACTICIBLE &
FURTFER FLOTATION MACHINE IS USED.
·        COKE & METALLIC IRON ARE ADDED TO THE ORES.
·        MIXTURE BY SMELTING IN BLAST FURNACE.
IMPURE LEAD IS OBTAINED WHICH IS FURTTHER PURIFIED IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
 
PROPERTIES:
·  CAN BE CUT WITH A KNIFE.
·  MAKES IMPRESSIONS ON PAPER.
·  LUSTEROUS METAL WITH BLUISH GREY COLOUR.
·  CONVERTED INTO LITHARGE, WHEN HEATED STRONGLY IN PRESENCE OF OXYGEN.
·  NOT ATTACKED BY DRY AIR, BUT MOIST AIR TAKES AWAY ITS BRIGHT METALLIC LUSTRE & A
DARK PROTECTIVE FILM IS PRODUCED ON THE SURFACE OF METAL.
·  POSSES LITTLE TENACITY.
·  READILY DISSOLVES IN DILUTE NITRIC ACID.
·  EXTREMELY SOFT, PLASTIC & ALMOST DEVOID OF ELASTICITY.
·  MELT AT 327.5OC AND BOILING POINT 1620OC.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 11.36
USES:
·        SHOTS, BULLETS, ALLOYS, STORAGE CELLS, SANITARY FITTINGS, CISTERNS, WATER PROOF COURSES,
CABLE COVERINGS, PREPARATION OF LEAD OXIDES FOR PAINTS, ETC

MAGNESIUM
ORES:
MAGENESITE (MgCO3)
DOLOMTE (Ca3 CO3, MgCO3)
KIESERITE (MgSO4, H2O)
CARNALLITE (MgCl2, KCl, 6H2O)
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION, ANHYDROUS MAGNESIUM CHLORITE IS HEATED WITH SODIUM IN PRESENCE OF COAL GAS.
·        LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION, ELECTROLYSIS OF FUSED CARNALLITE.
 
PROPERTIES:
·  BURNS WHEN HEATED IN AIR WITH A DAZZLING BLUISH WHITE LIGHT EXTREMELY RICH IN U.V. RAYS.
·  CARRIES AWAY HEAT EASILY.
·  FORM OF FINELY DIVIDED PARTICLES, IT BURNS READILY AND EASILY.
·  IF STRONGLY HEATED, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·  SILVER WHITE METAL POSSESSING A HIGH LUSTRE.
·  NOT AFFECTED BY ALKALIES.
·  MALLEABLE & DUCTILE.
·  MELT AT 651OC AND BOILING POINT 1110OC.
·  THERMAL COFFICIENT IS HIGH.
 
USES:
·        PHOTOGRAPHY, FIRE WORKS, SIGNALLING PAINTS, WHITENING PAPER PULP, ETC.
·        CANNOT BE USED IN STRUCTURAL PARTS, REFRACTORY MATERIAL IN THE FORM OF
MAGNESIA BRICKS FOR THE LINING OF STEEL AND ELECTRIC FURNACES.
USED AS CEMENTING MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL STONE, PLASTER, TILES, ETC
 
NICKEL



MANUFACTURE:
·        ORES ARE SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE ALONG WITH LIMESTONE, QUARTZ AND COKE AND ELECTROLIYSED.
 
PROPERTIES:
IF RED HOT, CAN DECOMPOSE STEAM.
·        IN FINELY GROUND POWDER FORM, IT MAY ABSORB HYDROGEN TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 17 TIMES ITS VOLUME.
·        GREYISH WHITE LUSTEROUS METAL.
·  CAPABLE OF TAKING HIGH POLISH AND CAN BE WELDED.
·  FAIRLY RESISTANT TO THE ACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERE AND IT BECOMES DULL AFTER ALONG TIME.
·  NOT AFFECTED BY FUSED ALKALIES.
·  HARD, MALLEABLE & MAGNETIC.
·  RESISTANCE TO CORROSION IS HIGH.
·  RANKS BELOW IRON IN ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY.
·  MELT AT 1452OC AND BOILING POINT 2900OC.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 8.90
 
·        USES:
·        WIDELY USED AS ACOATING FOR OTHER METALS AND FOR THE PREPARATIONS OF ALLOY LIKE GERMAN SILVER, NICKEL STEELS ETC.
·                    MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICAL APPRATUS CRUCIBLE, ELECTORPLATING PARTS OF MACHINE, DOMESTIC UTENSILS ETC

TIN

MANUFACTURE:
ORES ARE CALCINED AND SMELTED IN BLAST FURNACE ALONG WITH ANTHRACITE COAL AND SAND & REFINED IN REVEBERATORT FURNACE.
 
PROPERTIES:
CRACKING NOISE IS DUE TO INTERNAL FRICTION OF CRYSTAL SURFACES ON BENDING.
·        BECOMES BRITTLE WHEN HEATED TO A TEMP. OF ABOUT 200OC
·        WHITE LUSTEROUS METAL.
·        DISSOLVES IN HCl WITH EVOLUTION OF HYDROGEN.
·        FAIRLY RESISTANT TO THE ACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERE AND IT BECOMES DULL AFTER ALONG TIME.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY DRY AIR & PURE WATER.
·        SOFT & MALLEABLE.
·        RESISTANCE TO CORROSION DUE TO ACIDS IS HIGH.
·        MELT AT 231.5OC AND BOILING POINT 2260OC.
·        SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.31
 
USES:
·        RARELY USED ALONE, USED FOR PLATING, LINING, LEAD PIPES AND FOR THE PREPARATION OF ALLOYS AND SOLDER.
·        MAKING EVAPORATING BASINS, INFUSION POTS, ETC. PROTECTIVE COATINGS TO COPPER AND IRON UTENSILS.
CANNING, TIN FOILS, SILVERING MIRRORS, PACKING FOOD ETC

ZINC
ORES:
ZINCITE OR RED ZINC ZnO
FRANKLINITE ZnO, Fe2O3
·        CALAMINE OR ZINC COPPER ZnCO3
·        ZINC BLENDE ZnS (CHIEH SOURCE) 50%-65%
 
 
MANUFACTURE:
ZINC ORE IS HEATED IN AH ELECTRIC FURNACE TO REMOVE ALL VOLATILE CONSTITUENTS PRESENT
N THE ORE. THE ZINC IS LIBRATED IN THE FORM OF VAPOUR. THIS IS THEN CONDENSED TO GET THE METALLIC ZINC.
 
PROPERTIES:
BURNS WITH A GREENISH FLAMES WHEN STRONGLY HEATED IN AIR.
MAY BE DRAWN INTO WIRES AND ROLLED INTO SHEETS BETWEEN TEMP. RANGE OF 100OC TO 150OC
·        BLUISH WHITE METAL
·        BRITTLE AT ORDINARY TEMP.
·  VERY GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT & ELECTRICITY.
·        IN CONTACT OF IRON, COPPER, OR LEAD IN PRESENCE OF MOISTURE THE GALVANIC
ACTIONSTARTS AND THE ZINC IS QUICLY DESTROYED.
·  SHOULD BE KEPT CLEAR OF LIME AND CALCAREOUS SUBSTANCES
·  HARMFULLY ATTACKED AND ULTIMATELY DESTROYED BY ACID, HOT WATER AND SEA WATER.
·        NOT AFFECTED BY DRY AIR & PURE WATER.
·        RESISTANCE TO CORROSION.
·  MELT AT 419.4OC AND BOILING POINT 907OC.
·  SPECIFIC GRAVITY: @ 7.14
 
USES:
·        ELECTRIC CELL, GALVANIZING, PREPARATION OF ALLOY, PAINT,ETC.
·                    PROTECTIVE COVERING OR COAT TO IRON WORKS, PLAIN AND CORRUGATED SHEETS, IRON VESSELS ETC.

Architectural Presentation - TROPICAL GARDENS.

THE WORLD DIVIDED INTO 3 ZONES,
POLAR
TEMPERATE
TROPICAL

TROPICS IS THE AREA OF THE EARTH LYING BETWEEN THE NORTH AND
SOUTH POINTS OF SOLSTICE (I.E.) APP. 25 DEGREE NORTH AND SOUTH
LATITUDE.
ANY PLANT NATURALLY OCCURING BETWEEN THE TROPIC OF CANCER AND
THE TROPIC OF CAPRICORN IS A TROPICAL GARDEN PLANT.
TROPICAL REGIONS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
1.SUB-TROPICAL ZONES

2.HOT ARID ZONES

3.SAVANNA ZONES

4.MONSOON ZONES

5.HOT HUMID ZONES

VEGETATION CHARACTER----
1.SUB TROPICAL ZONE-
SPARSE TO LIGHT PLANT GROWTH.

2.HOT ARID ZONE-
LOW,SHALLOW-ROOTED GRASS,SMALL,THORNY BUSHES AND TREES,CACTII.
DESERT ALMOST WITHOUT VEGETATION AS THE UNDERGROUND WATER TABLE VERY LOW.
SCANTY PLANT GROWTH BRIEFLY AFTER RAINFALL,GROUND DRIES OUT AGAIN IMMEDIATELY.

3.SAVANNA ZONE-
VARIES AS THIS ZONE EXTENDS FROM JUNGLE TO DESERT,IN MAIN AREAS TALL TO VERY TALL GRASS,LOW GROWING THORN FOREST AND THORNY BUSHES.
DURING THE RAINY SEASON LUXURIANT GROWTH,OTHERWISE DRIED GRASS TOGETHER WITH LEAFLESS TREES AND BUSHES.

4.MONSOON ZONE-
FAIRLY ABUNDANT,EVEN IN DRY SEASON,HETEROGENOUS WITH TALL,DEEP ROOTED TREES.
HIGH GROUND MOISTURE CONTENT DURING RAINY SEASON,FALLING OFF RAPIDLY AFTERWARDS.

5.HOT HUMID ZONE-
LUXURIANT,SUPER ABUNDANT THROUGHOUT THE YEAR.
TALL TREES.
GROUND VERY MOIST,GROUND WATER LEVEL HIGH AT TIMES REACHING THE SURFACE.

6.MARITIME ZONE-
TREES GROW ONLY TO LOW OR MEDIUM HEIGHTS BECAUSE OF STRONG WINDS.
GROUND USUALLY RELATIVELY DRY,GROUND WATER TABLE FAIRLY HIGH.

7.MOUNTAIN ZONE-
EVERGREEN TREES FOUND NOT VERY TALL,NO EXTENSIVE FORESTS.
MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRASS UPTO 3FT.TALL,IN DRY SEASON COARSE AND ROBUST.

PLANTS------
FEW MAIN PLANT FAMILIES ARE MENTIONED BELOW:
1.TREES
2.PALMS
3.GROUND COVERS
4.BAMBOO
5.CREEPERS
6.WATER PLANTS

PLANTS-
ONE HAS TO OBSERVE THE PATTERN OF NATURE:THE LEAF PATTERN,THE GROWING PATTERNS,THE PATTERN OF CLIMATE AND THE LAY OF LAND.
ONE MUST COMPREHEND THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROUND-COVER’S,SHRUB’S,OR TREES LIFE CYCLE AND HOW IT BEHAVES ,AT EACH STAGE,AND IN DIFFERING SOIL AND SITE CONDITION
FEW MAIN PLANT FAMILIES OFTEN USED IN TROPICAL WORLD ARE ILLUSTRATED BELOW-

TREES AS CANOPIES-
CERTAIN UMBRELLA-LIKE TREES PROVIDE
HUGE POOLS OF SHADE,FOR RESPITE FROM
THE BLAZING SUN.
MOST TRADITIONAL VILLAGES AROUND
THE EQUATOR HAVE SUCH A TREE AT THEIR
CENTRE PLATFORMS OF ROCK.
BECAUSE OF THE SHELTER THEY OFFER ,THESE
AREAS OFTEN BECOME USED AS BUS STOPS,OFFERING PLATFORM….
EG. BODHI TREE,FICUS RELIGIOSA)

PALMS-
PALMS ARE A PART OF MANY TROPICAL
GARDEN COMPOSITIONS.
IT IS THE MOST “USER-FRIENDLY” PLANT OF
THE TROPICAL WORLD.
WHEN CHOOSING THE RIGHT PALM FOR A
LOCATION ONE SHOULD BE AWARE OF THEIR
SOIL PREFERANCES.
FOR EXAMPLE-
PRITCHARDIA PALMS AND COCONUT PALMS
THRIVE ON THE COAST.
SOME PALMS, LIKE THE LIVISTONA CHINENSIS,OFTEN USED IN SUBURBAN
PLANTER BOXES.

HERE CYCAS CIRCINALIS AND A STAND OF CANE PALMS (CHRYSALIDOCARPUS LUTESCENES) SOFTEN A BOARD ENTRANCE PATH INTO A BRISBANE GARDEN.

GROUND COVERS-
GRASS IS THE MOST PRACTICAL OF GROUND
COVERS-ITS THICK “PELT” IS CLEAN AND
MAINTAINANCE-FRIENDLY.
CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WHEN DECIDING
ON GRASS-
WHETHER COW GRASS,MANILA GRASS,TUFFY
JAPANESE GRASS,OR COUCH-FOR PARTICULAR SOIL
AND SUNLIGHT CONDITION.
GROUND COVERS LIKE COLEUS,WEDELIA,
CREEPING FERN AND PORTULACA NEED
SEASONAL RELANTING OR CUTTING BACK.
GROUNDCOVERS LIKE MONDOGRASS
(OTHIOPOGON),IN ALL ITS MANY SHAPES
AND SIZES,AND THE RHOEO ARE GREAT
TROPICAL PERFOMERS AS THEY ARE HARDY
AND FILL IN EASILY AROUND ACCENT PLANTS
AND OTHER SHRUBS.

HEMIGRAPHIS IS A HARDY AND SILVER-COLORED GROUNDCOVER.GROWS WELL IN DAPPLED LIGHT AND SHALLOW TOP SOIL

THE TERRACES OF THE BALI HYATT,SANUR

BAMBOO-


IT IS STATED THAT BAMBOO IS “THE
LANDSCAPER’S FRIEND”.
ALL MANNERS OF PERGOLAS,FENCES,
GATES,GARDEN FURNITURE,STEPS CAN
BE FASHIONED FROM BAMBOO.
AMONGST TROPICAL VARITIES ,

CREEPERS-
SHADE STRUCTURES LIKE THE PARGOLAS AND
TRELLISES,ARE AN IMPORTANT PART OF
TROPICAL GARDEN DESIGN.
FAST GROWING CREEPERS HELP MAKE TIMBER
LATTICEWORK INTO AN EFFICIENT AND
ATTRACTIVE SUN BLOCK.
CREEPERS LIKE MONSTERA DELICIOSA,THE VARIOUS
CLIMBING MEMBERS OF THE COLOURFUL PHILODENDRON FAMILY AND MIGHTY FICUS PUMILA ARE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN USED TO SOFTEN A COURTYARD.
THE BELLY BAMBOO(BAMBUSA
VENTRICOSA) AND THE GLAMEROUS
GOLDEN YELLOWARE USED.
OTHER BAMBOO VARITIES LIKE THE
HEDGE BAMBOO(PSEUDOSASA JAPONICA),
OSTRICH FEATHER AND GOLDEN BAMBOO
(PHYLLOSTACHYS AUREA)ARE USEFUL
WHEN HEDGING OR
SCREENING ARE REQUIRED ALONG A
BOUNDARY.

WATER PLANTS-
WATER PLANTS ARE EXTREMLY EASY TO TRANSPLANT AND PROPOGATE –PROVIDED
THERE IS ENOUGH SUNLIGHT AND WATER.
WATER PLANTS CAN HELP TO SOFTEN A WATER FEATURE.
BOGSIDE FLORA-LIKE THE BULRUSH,PAPYRUS AND IRIS ARE EXCELLENT FOR
SOFTENING THE WATER’S EDGE.
WATER HYACINTHS AND IRIS ARE WATER PLANTS WHICH THRIVE IN CONTAINERS
TOO.

WATER LETTUCE BULRUSHES AND A POTTED WRIGHTIA RELIGIOSA MAKE THIS UNIQUE WATER GARDEN

COURTYARDS,PATIOS,TERRACES,VERANDAH,PATHS AND PAVINGS.

THE VERANDAH-
TROPICAL GARDENS ARE OFTEN ADMIRED FROM
UNDER THE COOLING SHADE OF A VERANDAH OR
PAVILION.
IN THE TROPICS WE HAVE TO REMEMBER THAT
THE OFTEN RAPID GROWTH RATES OF CERTAIN
PLANTS REQUIRE US TO DESIGN-IN CONTINGENCIES
FOR RADICAL COMPOSITIONAL CHANGE.
A PICTURE SHOWING THE SEMICOVERED VERANDAH WITH WOODEN MEMBERS OVER WHICH CREEPERS WERE PLANTED.


COURTYARDS-IN ANCIENT COMMUNITIES OF TROPICAL ASIA,
THE WHOLE VILLAGE IS DESIGNED ALONG THE
COURTYARD ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLE.
THERE ARE SCULPTURE COURTS,WATER COURTS,
PALM COURTS,PEBBLE COURTS

ENTRANCE COURT IN BLACK CANDI STONE(ANDESITE)AT THE MAIN DINNING ROOM OF THE FOUR SEASONS RESORT

TERRACES AND PATIOS-
WELL- DESIGNED TROPICAL HOUSES HAVE
CLIMATE-FRIENDLY VERANDAHS OR TERRACES
ON WHICH TO PICK UP A PASSING BREEZE.
THESE TERRACES ARE OFTEN DECORATED
WITH POTTED PLANTS AND COMFORTABLE
FURNITURE.
PATIOS, OR OUTDOOR COURTS,WHETHER SURROUNDED ON ALL SIDES OR JUST OPEN TO SKY LIKE AN OUTDOOR SPACE,ARE A USEFUL ADDITION TO ANY TROPICAL HOUSE WITH RESPECT TO THE CLIMATE ZONE .
TERRACES AND PATIOS LOOK MORE DRAMATIC
WITH A TREE.
PONDS IN THE CENTRE OF A PATIO AND
AT THE SIDE OF A TERRACE ARE
EXCELLENT PASSIVE COOLING SYSTEMS.

THIS PATIO STYLE COURTYARD IN A MANILA SUBURBAN HOUSE USES A PLETHORA OF STRONG DECORATIVE ELEMENTS


BAMBOO OR TIMBER DECKS ARE A PLEASANT ADDITION TO ANY TROPICAL HOUSE-COOLING EFFECT,SHADY CORNERS IF WRAPPED AROUN THE TREES.

PATHS AND PAVINGS-
PAVERS AND PEBBLES OF SOME SORT ARE QUITE OFTEN A
NECCESITY.THE TRICK IS TO MAKE THEM LOOK LIKE A LUXURY.
THE CHOICE OF PAVERS HAVE A BIG INFLUENCE ON THE
GARDENS COMPOSITION.
HOLES IN THE PAVING SCHEME WITH TREES IN THEM ARE
ALWAYS A GOOD IDEA IN THE TROPICS,THEY ALLOW WATER
TO SOAK AWAY.
PEBBLES ,SPREAD THINLY ON A BRICK BASE OR THIN
CONCRETE SLAB.MAKE A CLEAN SPACIOUS LOOK.
THEY PROVIDE GOOD SURFACE DRAINAGE AND ARE
VERY USEFUL IN THE ZONE UNDER THE EAVE WHERE
GROUNDCOVERS TEND NOT TO GROW.

SOME INITIAL CRITERIA’S FOR JUDGING THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE
DESIGN OF A HOUSE IN HOT AND HUMID TROPICS ARE MENTIONED
BELOW-

HAVE A LIVING ROOM IN THE FOCUS OF THE HOUSE AND WHICH IS PERMANENTLY
OPEN TO SKY.
NOT TO DESTROY ANY SUBSTANTIAL TREES ON THE SITE AND BE IN HARMONY
WITH NATURE.
HAVE IN BETWEEN SPACES IN THE FORM OF A COURTYARD,VERANDAHS,TERRACES
AND SHADED BALCONIES.
BE SURROUNDED BY A GARDEN AND NON-REFLECTIVE LANDSCAPED SURFACES.
THE EXTENSIVE USE OF LANDSCAPE TO MODIFY THE MICRO-CLIMATE.
POOLS AND FOUNTAINS CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE COOLING EFFECT.

Architectural presentation-IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES

The use of system of basins, channels, or sprinklers system to provide a controlled supply of water to plants.
Landscape planting can be irrigated in number of ways: basin, furrow, sprinkler, soaker, and drip.
The method used will depend on type of plantings, amount, quality, source of water, terrain; available funding ; and source of labor.
In order to save water & labor, most intensive landscape plantings are being developed with automatically controlled systems.
Irrigation systems have become an increasingly large part of landscape construction budgets.

OBJECTIVE:

To supply water in usable amounts to the root zone of the plants.
To accomplish this it is necessary to consider the soil conditions and the growth characteristics of the land.

INTRODUCTION:

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS:

Infiltration rate: Amount of water that can be absorbed by soil in one hour. Measured in inches per hour.
Field capacity: Volume of water a soil will hold after the natural force of gravity has drained off the excess moisture. Measured in inches.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS:

The plant species to be irrigated must be evaluated to determine the amount of water necessary to sustain it during peak growth periods.
Evapo-transpiration rate: This is the amount of water given up by a plant as a result of normal evaporation and transpiration of plant.

Type of equipment to be used:

How fast can the water be applied?
This is determined by infiltration rate of soil.
How much water needs to be applied?This depends on evapo-transpiration rate of the plant species.
How often must water be applied?
This is determined by the field capacity of the soil and the percentage of available moisture.
The answers to these questions will directly determine the type of equipment that should be used and the kind of system.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION:

Flood irrigation:

In flood irrigation, a large amount of water is brought to the field and flows on the ground among the crops. In regions where water is abundant, flood irrigation is the cheapest method of irrigation and this low tech irrigation method is commonly used by societies in developing countries.

Advantages:
Simple & cheap method.
Very less labor required,
Flushes salt out of the soil.

Disadvantages:
Could be applied on flat lands only.
About 50% of the water is wasted and does not used by the crops (due to irrigation, transpiration & run-off).
Anaerobic environment created due to flooding thus creating low nitrogen soil.

Steps taken for maximum utilization of water:

Leveling of fields:
Flood irrigation uses gravity to transport water, and, since water flows downhill, it will miss a part of the field that is on a hill, even a small hill. Farmers are using leveling equipment, to scrap field flat before planting. That allows water to flow evenly throughout the fields.

Surge flooding:
Traditional flooding involved just releasing water onto a field. In using surge flooding, water is released at prearranged intervals, which reduces unwanted runoff.

Capture and reuse of runoff:
A large amount of flood-irrigation water is wasted because it runs off the edges and back of the fields. Farmers can capture the runoff in ponds and pump it back up to the front of the field where it is reused for the next cycle of irrigation.

2. Furrow irrigation:

Furrow irrigation is actually a type of flood irrigation in which the water poured on the field is directed to Flow, through narrow channels dug between the rows of crops, instead of distributing the water throughout the whole field evenly. The furrows must all have equal dimensions, in order to guarantee that the water is distributed evenly. Like flood irrigation, furrow irrigation is rather cheap in areas where water is inexpensive.

3. BASIN IRRIGATION:
A basin is a level area surrounded by a berm to hold water. Basins are well adapted to level areas for shrub and flower beds and trees where foot traffic is infrequent. Soil should slope away from the trunk of plants. Any pavement surrounding a basin should be at the same level or higher than the top of the berm to minimize washing of the mud onto the pavement.



4. SPRINKLER OR SPRAY IRRIGATION:

Spray irrigation is a more modern way of irrigating, but it also requires machinery. Large scale spray irrigation systems are in use on large farms today. These systems have a long tube fixed at one end to the water source, such as a well. Water flows through the tube and is shot out by a system of spray-guns.
Used on shrub, flower, and tree plantings.
Provides fairly uniform water distribution even on hilly terrains.
The rate of application may need to be slow on uneven areas to allow for penetration.

A common type of spray-irrigation system are the center-pivot systems. The center-pivot systems have a number of metal frames (on rolling wheels) that hold the water tube out into the fields. And there can be a very big water gun at the end of the tube. Electric motors move each frame in a big circle around the field (the tube is fixed at the water source at the center of the circle), squirting water.


Advantages:
Water is distributed uniformly even on hilly terrains.
Very less amount of water is wasted in comparison to flood irrigation. Labor cost is very low.
Keeps humidity higher.

Disadvantages:
Moisten mulches but does not wash or float it away.
May pack the surface of the bare soil & reduce infiltration.
Flowers & tall plants may be damaged by the force of water.
Frequent light sprinklings with saline water may cause an unsightly or even toxic buildup of salt.

Better spray irrigation:
By use of traditional spray irrigation, water basically is just shot through the air onto fields. In the dry and windy air a lot of the water sprayed evaporates or blows away before it hits the ground. Another method, where water is gently sprayed from a hanging pipe uses water more efficiently. This method increases irrigation efficiency from about 60 percent (traditional spray irrigation) to over 90 percent. Plus, less electricity is needed.



5. SOAKER IRRIGATION:

Soakers are used to apply water at slow rates.
Consists of canvas or porous plastic tubes, of hoses, or of plastic tubing with fine holes.
Useful in difficult-to-irrigate areas: across slopes; near long, narrow plantings; or in soils with low infiltration rates. Water distribution along the soaker often varies from one end to the other, but will usually be more uniform at higher rates (pressure).

6. DRIP IRRIGATION:
Drip irrigation is the most expensive method of irrigation, it is also the most advanced and efficient method in respect to effective water use.

Usually used to irrigate fruits and vegetables, this system consists of perforated pipes that are placed by rows of crops or buried along their root lines and emit water directly onto the crops that need it.
Drip irrigation saves water upto 90% over flood irrigation on sandy soil & around 20% over sprinkling on clay soil.

Water high in salts should be filtered before use since otherwise they may clog the emitters and create a local buildup of high salinity soil around the plants if the irrigation water contains soluble salts.

It permits irrigation on the steep banks, shallow soils, soils with slow infiltration rates, and sandy soils.
Water wastage through evaporation from soil & weeds is also reduced.



7. PITCHER IRRIGATION:

Used in arid or semi-arid climatic
Pitcher irrigation uses unglazed clay pots to distribute water by diffusion and capillary action through the wall of the clay pot. Pitchers are less expensive per acre and much more effective than traditional means.
Per cubic meter of water, the buried clay pot method can produce 2.5 to 6 kilograms of total plant yield, compared to 1.4 kg with drip irrigation, 0.9 kg with sprinklers, and 0.7 kg in furrow irrigation systems.

ADVANTAGES:
save over 90% of water over traditional irrigation methods
CHEAP!
easy to install, operate and maintain
controls weeds
Minimize erosion by keeping the water underground
implement as much or as little as needed

DISADVANTAGES:
However, as with any system, pitcher irrigation is not a perfect solution. There is a dramatic disadvantage of plants becoming dependent on the pitchers for their only water source and therefore do not develop the deep-rooting systems that would develop otherwise.
Labor required for regular checking of pots.
Too expensive for large areas.

DIAPHRAGM WALLS

Diaphragm walls refers to the construction of in-situ retaining vertical walls by deep trench excavation method.
Stability of the sides of the excavation is ensured by bentonite slurry. Hence these types of walls are also termed at times as ‘slurry walls’
The wall is constructed in panels and the length of typical panel is between 2.5 to 7m.

Standard methods of constructing retaining walls require temporary form work and supports. These become uneconomical after a certain depth.
The construction of the work above ground cannot proceed till the basement work is complete. This involves more time for construction.
Use of diaphragm wall construction eliminates the need for formwork and temporary support and also allows above ground construction to proceed along with basement construction



Purpose built grabs or milling machines called as hydromills are used to do the excavation.
Since the wall is cast in panels special care has to be taken to make the joints between the panels watertight.
Water bars are constructed within the construction joints to prevent water leakage through them.
Standard widths of the walls range from 600,800, 1000 and 1200mm.

BENTONITE SLURRY

Bentonite slurry is a clay mixed with water which possesses ‘Thicksotropic’ property. That means that when it is left undisturbed it acts as a ‘gel’ and when it is moved it acts like a liquid. The bentonite slurry is poured into the excavation and it seeps into the adjoining soil forming a cake which prevents the sides from caving in.The bentonite is removed while concreting by displacement.
The depth of diaphragm walls can reach 50 to 80m.
The tolerance for verticality is normally 1:200
This type of construction method is called ‘Top down basement construction’
This allows for above ground construction simultaneously with excavation of basement.

Typical Applications:
Deep basements
Underground tanks
Access shafts
Road and rail under passes
Tunnels
Multilevel under ground parking